Research Articles (African Languages)

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The interplay of verbal cinematic, balletic and pantomimic manifestations in isiZulu literary narratives
Ntshangase, Sicelo Ziphozonke; Mncwango, Lungile (Routledge, 2025-03-12)
There is a dearth of studies that analyse the discourse of isiZulu literature. Most studies focus on the actual story, which is the chain of events and its setting. However, discourse, which is how the story is narrated, is frequently neglected. Therefore, the paucity of studies on the manifestation or substance of expression makes verbal cinematic and balletic pantomimic the under-researched theatrical artefacts of narrative discourse in isiZulu literature. Informed by the structuralist model, this article adopts the narrative theory to frame its argument on how the substance of expression is projected in the historical novel, uNodumehlezi kaMenzi by Phumani Zondi, set in the precolonial South African context. The findings reveal that verbal cinematic and balletic pantomimic theatrical artefacts in the novel are presented suggestively, requiring readers’ deep cognitive visualisation and imagination to interpret them correctly. Therefore, readers must understand the cosmology and philosophy on which the verbal cinematic and balletic pantomimic theatrical artefacts are based to understand the underlying meaning or message conveyed in the novel. The relevance or irrelevance of the meaning resides with the reader of the novel.
E.K.K. Matlala : mongwadi wa ditaodišosengwalo tša mathomo tša Sepedi
Kanyane, Francinah Mokgobo; Mojalefa, M.J. (Mawatle Jeremiah), 1948- (Routledge, 2025-05-19)
SEPEDI : Maikemišetšo a nyakišišo ye ke go rarolla mathata a thulaganyo ya ditaodišo tša Matlala. Nyakišišo e babaletše go laetša bohlokwa le bokgoni bja Matlala go ngwalweng ga ditaodišosengwalo tša Sepedi, le ka fao a di rulagantšego ka gona go ya ka mehutana ye mene, ye nngwe le ye nngwe e emela mohutana wa yona. Ke gore, go yo bewa bokgoni bjoo bja Matlala leihlo, go bona ge e le mongwadi wa maemo wa ditaodišosengwalo tša Sepedi. Nyakišišo e tla hlahlwa ke teori ya naratholotši ye e beakantšwego, go šomišwa mokgwanyakišišo wa boleng, go hlaloša le go hlatholla ka ditaodišo tša Matlala. Datha e tla kgoboketšwa go tšwa kgoboketšong ya ditaodišosengwalo tša Matlala tša go bitšwa Mengwalo (Essays) Puku II (1943), e lebane le ditaodišo tše nne elego ‘Lexae’, ‘Fsika-thsipi la Ramosweu’, ‘Tato ya monnyana ke lesoxana’ le ‘Sakeng la bophelo’. Athekele ye e utolla ge Matlala a tšweleditše bokgoni bja go ngwala ditaodišo tša Sepedi ka bokgwari go ya ka lenaneothulaganyo la thaetlele, matseno, mmele le morumo. Katlego ye nngwe e tšwelela gape thulaganyong ya mohutataodišosengwalo ka go hlagiša bokgoni bja ditaodišosengwalo tše nne tšeo go ya ka thulaganyo ye e amogelwago ke maemo a bongwadi bja ditaodišo tša boditšhabatšhaba.
Southern Bantu auxiliary functions and their distributions
Crane, Thera Marie (Nordic Africa Research Network, 2026-03-31)
Southern Bantu languages have extensive auxiliary inventories with functions that sometimes go beyond typical tense/aspect/mood/polarity meanings. This article examines areal semantic patterns of auxiliaries in 16 Southern Bantu varieties, identifying functions that are regularly encoded by auxiliary forms. In addition to tense, aspect, modal, and negation meanings, these include sequentiality functions (‘until’, ‘after’, ‘furthermore’, and ‘meanwhile’, among others) and adverbial-like functions such as ‘quickly, soon’, ‘do well’, ‘do in vain, fail’, ‘nevertheless’, ‘rather, preferably’, and ‘just, merely’. This article aims to give a systematic overview of auxiliary functions and where they are attested across Southern Bantu, allowing for further targeted studies and cross-linguistic investigations and leading, ultimately, to a better understanding of the origins of Southern Bantu auxiliary systems.
Introduction to the Special Issue : Advancing the study of auxiliary systems in Bantu
Kanijo, Ponsiano Sawaka; Bernander, Rasmus; Strom, Eva-Marie Bloom; Crane, Thera Marie; Gunnink, Hilde (Nordic Africa Research Network, 2026-03-31)
Bantu languages are notoriously “verby” (Nurse 2008, 21), referring to the highly agglutinative nature of the inflected verb, whose complexities have sparked extensive research. Now that Bantu verbal morphology is much better understood, the time has come to widen the scope of research beyond the limits of the inflected, lexical verb to auxiliary verbs, which play an important role in Bantu verbal constructions but have enjoyed relatively little dedicated attention. This special issue is the outcome of an open call for papers issued by editors of the Nordic Journal of African Studies, inviting contributions on auxiliary verb constructions in Bantu languages. The call was designed to capture the breadth and diversity of current research on Bantu auxiliaries, encouraging submissions that address their categorical status, functional range, diachronic development, contact-induced change, and interaction with broader grammatical systems.
Auxiliary stacking in southern Bantu languages
Crane, Thera Marie; Gibson, Hannah; Riedel, Kristina (Nordic Journal of African Studies, University of Copenhagen Centre of African Studies, 2026-03-31)
Auxiliary constructions in Southern Bantu exhibit a feature in which two or more auxiliaries appear alongside a single lexical verb. We term this construction ‘auxiliary stacking’. The goal of the paper is to outline the phenomenon of auxiliary stacking in Southern Bantu and raise questions about its features and limits. We focus on what we currently know in terms of features of variation associated with auxiliary stacking, namely a) ordering of stacked auxiliaries, b) number of auxiliaries permitted, c) subject marking properties, and d) the semantics of these auxiliary stacking constructions. We also look at other features such as tense-aspect-mood, as well as modality and negation. The article then sets out areas for further investigation via a systematic study of auxiliary stacking constructions in Southern Bantu and serves as a call for future targeted research on these constructions.
Imvelaphi yokuphikisana kwemibono ngobulili obuhlukene ngokwesimanje okuvezwa ngamanoveli esiZulu
Makhiwane, Nombulelo Precious; Zondi, Nompumelelo Bernadette (Routledge, 2026)
ZULU : Lolu cwaningo lucubungula ngemvelaphi yokuphikisana kwemibono ngobulili obuhlukahlukene ngokwesimanje. Lukwenza lokhu ngokucubungula amanoveli esiZulu amabili, enesihloko esithi Umshado ebhalwe nguNelisiwe Zulu (2011), kanye nenesihloko esithi Mthathe Ungowakho ebhalwe nguSicelo Ntshangase (2020). Injongo yalolu cwaningo ngukuthola umongo womdonsiswano wemibono ngobulili obuhlukahlukene ngokwesimanje, ngokusebenzisa imiqondongqangi ewuhlaka lenjulalwazi iseksizimu kanye nehetharoseksizimu. Iseksizimu indlela yokucwasa noma yokubandlulula abantu ngokobulili babo (Masequesmay, 2021: 1; Lerner, 1968: 217). Ihetharoseksizimu yindlela yokucwasa abantu abazibandakanya ebudlelwaneni bezothando obuhlukile kunobujwayelekile obuphakathi kowesilisa nowesifazane (Askew et al, 2021: Rodwell, 1971: 5). Lusebenzise indlela yokucwaninga eyikhwalithethivu kanye nomklamo onguhlaziyomqondo noyisisekelo esiklame umgudu wenkambo yalolu cwaningo. Lolu cwaningo luveze ukuthi ukuphikisana kwemibono ngobulili obuhlukene ngokwesimanje kwenzeka ngenxa yokuhluleka kwabantu ukwamukela ukuthi kukhona abantu abakhula baphile impilo ehlukile kulokhu okulindelekile kubo ngokobulili abazalwe nabo. ENGLISH : This study aims to explore the origins of contemporary gender discourse through an analysis of two Zulu novels: Umshado by Nelisiwe Zulu (2011) and Mthathe Ungowakho by Sicelo Ntshangase (2020). It examines the roots of contemporary gender issues, using sexism and heterosexism as key concepts within its conceptual framework. According to Masequesmay (2021: 1; Lerner, 1986: 217), sexism refers to discrimination based on gender, while heterosexism, as defined by Askew et al. (2015: 8; Rodwell, 1971: 5), refers to discrimination against individuals in relationships that deviate from heterosexual norms. A qualitative research approach was employed, guided by a conceptual analysis research design strategy. The findings indicate that contemporary gender discourse arises from societal resistance to individuals whose lives diverge from traditional gender expectations based on their assigned gender at birth.
Customised GPTs for lexicography
De Schryver, Gilles-Maurice (Buro van die WAT, 2025-12)
About a year and a half ago, lexicographers realised that the enthusiasm they had when using ChatGPT-3.5 for English lexicography, could not be carried over to other languages, not even big ones like Portuguese. A year ago, the lexicographic community was made aware that ChatGPT-3.5 could not be used at all for small languages, and especially not for oral ones like Lusoga. In mid-2025, we notice that the models have improved drastically. Both Gemini-2.5 and especially GPT-4o perform miracles on languages like Portuguese, and for undocumented languages like Lusoga, customising GPT-4o by feeding it corpora as well as entire dictionaries is a major step forward, down to tackling neologisms. We are not yet there in full but moving forward.
Perceptions of language service technologies and reference works by Chinese users in the era of generative AI
Han, Wanjing; De Schryver, Gilles-Maurice (Oxford University Press, 2026-02-11)
As paper dictionaries, digital reference works, machine-translation systems, and emerging AI-based language tools increasingly coexist, there is a need to reassess how users evaluate these resources and what kinds of lexicographic support they now require. Drawing on user reviews and questionnaire data from over one thousand Chinese learners of advanced English, this study shows that, for most of these users, traditional paper and digital dictionaries are no longer perceived as sufficient for many of their real-world tasks. Instead, they express a growing demand for more adaptive and context-sensitive forms of lexical assistance. Beyond definitions, they expect support with authentic usage, genre- and domain-related terminology, and culturally-rich language needs. The findings also suggest that recent AI technologies may reshape lexicographic practice, raising questions about the future scope of lexicography and the role of lexicographers.
Modal expressions in Xhosa, Part II : Possibility
Crane, Thera Marie; Savić, Stefan; Slater, Onelisa; Bernander, Rasmus (Peeters Online Journals, 2025-12)
This study reports on modal expressions of possibility in Xhosa, a Bantu language of South Africa. Combining analysis of occurrences in a small corpus and the native-speaker intuitions of one of the authors, we describe patterns and restrictions in the distribution of four markers of possibility: auxiliary(-like) kwazi and nakho, and prefixes noku-and nga-. Results confirm the generalisation that further grammaticalisation (e.g. auxiliary > affix) corresponds to more subjective meanings. Our corpus data further suggest the significance of the category of existential possibility in Xhosa and its position in pathways of semantic change. Source lexical and constructional meanings are also significant in the usage patterns of Xhosa modal expressions. Finally, our results suggest that semantic expansion from participant-internal possibility (i.e. ability) functions to participant-external (circumstantial or goal-based) may occur via purpose and result clauses.
Out-of-the-Box GPTs for lexicography
De Schryver, Gilles-Maurice (Bureau of the WAT, 2025)
ABSTRACT : A detailed analysis is offered of how ChatGPT-3.5 has treated the world's languages for lexicographic purposes, starting with hyper-visible English, moving to semi-visible Portuguese, and ending with low-visible Bantu languages. Case studies for the latter group are region-visible Swahili, nation-visible Xhosa and local-visible Lusoga. This impact-based scale is reflected in the uptake of GenAI technology for lexicography. The results of using out-of-the-box ChatGPT-3.5 are fantastic for English, fake for Portuguese, and simply fail for the Bantu languages. But there is a way out, and the seeds for that are sown in this article. Keywords: generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), large language models (LLMs), generative pre-trained transformer (GPT), out-of-the-box GPTs, lexicography, dictionaries, lexicographers, English, Portuguese, Bantu, Swahili, Xhosa, Lusoga
Terminologiebestuur binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks
Goosen, Michelle; Taljard, Elsabe (Elizabeth) (Bureau of the WAT, 2025)
ENGLISH : This article examines the systematic management of terminological information in South Africa through the use of terminology management systems. It argues for a structured approach to terminology management across different contexts, namely at macro, meso, and micro level. The focus is specifically on terminology management within the commercial context, where it can enhance productivity within an organisation, ensure effective communication, and improve return on investment. The importance of user-oriented terminological products is emphasised, with specific attention given to the profile of the target user. Various types of software for terminology management, namely standalone, internet-based, and mobile applications, are discussed. This discussion also includes the knowledge-based approach to terminology. The article proposes a practical terminology workflow diagram suited to the multilingual South African context. It highlights the necessity of further research, institutional support, and user involvement to establish a sustainable terminology infrastructure in South Africa. AFRIKAANS : Hierdie artikel ondersoek die sistematiese bestuur van terminologiese inligting in Suid-Afrika deur middel van terminologiebestuursisteme. Daar word argumenteer vir 'n gestruk-tureerde benadering tot terminologiebestuur binne verskillende kontekste, naamlik op makro-, meso- en mikrovlak. Daar word spesifiek gefokus op terminologiebestuur binne die kommersiële konteks wat binne 'n organisasie produktiwiteit kan verhoog, doeltreffende kommunikasie kan verseker en opbrengs op belegging kan verbeter. Die belang van gebruikersgeoriënteerde terminologieprodukte word beklemtoon waar daar spesifiek aandag aan die profiel van die teikengebruiker gegee word. Verskeie tipes sagteware vir terminologiebestuur, d.i. losstaande, internetgebaseerde en mobiele toepassings, word bespreek. Hierdie bespreking sluit ook die kennisgebaseerde benadering tot terminologie in. Die artikel stel 'n praktiese terminologiewerkvloeidiagram voor wat geskik is vir die veeltalige Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Dit wys op die noodsaaklikheid van verdere navorsing, institusionele ondersteuning en gebruikersbetrokkenheid om 'n volhoubare terminologie-infrastruktuur in Suid-Afrika te vestig.
Endemann's Wörterbuch der Sotho Sprache (1911) : a worthy candidate for digitisation
Taljard, Elsabe (Elizabeth); Faab, Gertrud; Prinsloo, Danie J. (Daniel Jacobus), 1953-; Bosch, Sonja (Bureau of the WAT, 2025-07)
ENGLISH : This article re-evaluates Wörterbuch der Sotho Sprache, a historically significant, yet neglected Sotho–German dictionary, published in 1911 by Berlin missionary Karl Endemann. Its marginalisation stems from its choice of German as target language, outdated orthography, missionary orientation, and deviation from modern lexicographic principles. Rather than a conventional comparison with modern Sepedi dictionaries, this study positions Endemann's work within its historical and cultural context. Key lexicographic elements such as grammatical formatives, alphabetical categories, high-frequency lemmas, semantically related paradigms, and culturally significant entries are analysed in detail. The findings often reveal strengths that match or even surpass those of later Sepedi dictionaries. Despite its value, user access remains limited due to linguistic complexity and unavailability. With digitisation now permitted by the publisher, this study outlines a multi-phase strategy to enhance usability, including the use of OCR4all, an open-source tool for text recognition. While the digitisation process is not without challenges, the application of OCR4all has yielded impressive accuracy. However, despite the high-quality output, this margin of error necessitates manual verification to ensure the integrity of the digitised content as a reliable and accessible resource for modern users. AFRIKAANS : Hierdie artikel herevalueer Wörterbuch der Sotho Sprache, 'n histories betekenisvolle dog verwaarloosde Sotho–Duitse woordeboek, wat in 1911 deur die Berlynse sendeling Karl Endemann gepubliseer is. Die marginalisering daarvan spruit uit sy keuse van Duits as doeltaal, verouderde ortografie, sendingoriëntasie en afwyking van moderne leksikografiese beginsels. Eerder as 'n konvensionele vergelyking met moderne Sepedi-woordeboeke, plaas hierdie studie Endemann se werk binne sy historiese en kulturele konteks. Sleutelleksikografiese elemente soos die hantering van grammatikale formatiewe, alfabetiese kategorieë, hoëfrekwensie-lemmas, semanties-verwante paradigmas en kultureel betekenisvolle inskrywings word in detail ontleed. Die bevindinge openbaar dikwels sterkpunte wat ooreenstem met of selfs dié van latere Sepedi-woordeboeke oortref. Ten spyte van die waarde daarvan, bly gebruikerstoegang beperk weens linguistiese kompleksiteit en onbeskikbaarheid. Met digitisering wat nou deur die uitgewer toegelaat word, sit hierdie studie 'n multifase strategie uiteen om bruikbaarheid te verbeter, insluitend die gebruik van OCR4all, oopbronsagteware vir teksherkenning. Alhoewel die digitiseringsproses nie sonder uitdagings is nie, het die toepassing van OCR4all indrukwekkende akkuraatheid opgelewer. Ten spyte van die hoë kwaliteit uitset, noodsaak 'n foutmarge egter handmatige verifikasie om die integriteit van die gedigitiseerde inhoud te verseker as 'n betroubare en toeganklike hulpbron vir moderne gebruikers.
The automatic determination of translation equivalents in lexicography : what works and what doesn't?
Denisova, Michaela; De Schryver, Gilles-Maurice; Rychly, Pavel (European Association for Lexicography, 2024-12)
Cross-lingual embedding models act as facilitator of lexical knowledge transfer and offer many advantages, notably their applicability to low-resource and non-standard language pairs, making them a valuable tool for retrieving translation equivalents in lexicography. Despite their potential, these models have primarily been developed with a focus on Natural Language Processing (NLP), leading to significant issues, including flawed training and evaluation data, as well as inadequate evaluation metrics and procedures. In this paper, we introduce cross-lingual embedding models for lexicography, addressing the challenges and limitations inherent in the current NLP-focused research. We demonstrate the problematic aspects across three baseline cross-lingual embedding models and three language pairs and outline possible solutions. We show the importance of high-quality data, advocating that its role is vital compared to algorithmic optimisation in enhancing the effectiveness of these models.
The history and development of Zulu as a literary medium
Wilkes, Arnett (South African Association for Language Teaching, 2000-12)
This article examines the developmental history of Zulu as literary medium, starting from the time missionaries first reduced it to writing approximately 150 years ago up to 1993 when its current orthography was finalised. An orthography specifies a number of things about the writing of a language, notably how the speech sounds should be written and where the boundaries of words occur. In this article the focus primarily falls on the developmental history of the alphabetic system of Zulu. Contributions made by different language pioneers to the orthographic development of Zulu are highlighted. So too are the changes that from time to time were made to its alphabet. Only limited attention is given to word division in Zulu, not because it is regarded as a minor orthographic matter, but because it was a far less controversial issue among the scholars who were involved in the orthographic development of this language than what it later became in academic circles. Ever since Doke's theory on word identification in the African languages was accepted as an orthographic principle in Zulu, a certain uniformity in the writing of Zulu words was achieved so that when the orthography of this language first became standardized in 1934 (and in its subsequent revisions), the orthographic committees concerned found it necessary to regulate the writing of only a small number of words m this language - something which is borne out by the relatively small number of word division rules Zulu has. In conclusion a number of problems that writers have with some of the capitalisation rules in Zulu are pointed out.
Modal expressions in Xhosa, Part I : Necessity
Crane, Thera Marie; Savić, Stefan; Slater, Onelisa; Bernander, Rasmus (Peeters Online Journals, 2024-12)
This study reports on an investigation of modal expressions of necessity in Xhosa, a Bantu language of South Africa. Combining analysis of occurrences in a small corpus and the native‑speaker intuitions of one of the paper’s authors, we describe patterns and restrictions in the distribution of two markers of necessity, auxiliary‑like fanele and funeka; we also give some notes on the necessity marker mele. The most significant differences in the meanings and uses of these markers are in the participant‑internal and epistemic domains, and the lexical meanings (still active in Xhosa, in addition to the markers’ modal functions) are evident in their usage distributions.
Doing things with grammar : presupposition accommodation across grammatical categories
Khachaturyan, Maria; Sandman, Erika; Crane, Thera Marie (John Benjamins Publishing, 2024-12)
This paper studies the way utterances project properties of the interactional context via the choice of grammatical indexicals. Our analysis is an original combination of existing theoretical developments including notions of grammatical indexicality (Silverstein 1976), of the relational structure of indexical reference (Hanks 2014) and of presupposition accommodation (von Fintel 2008; Heim 1982; Karttunen 1974, among others). While Silverstein (1976) suggested that different types of grammatical indexicals can be (relatively) context-creating or (relatively) context-presupposing, we argue that presupposition vs creativity is not a property of specific categories, but rather of tokens in a given context and that in natural interaction, they are subject to negotiation. While all indexicals are presupposing, there are two types of uses of pragmatic presupposition involved forming a scale (Mazzarella & Domaneschi 2018; Sbisà 1999): non-informative (when the presupposition is already part of common ground of the interlocutors) and informative (when the presupposition needs to be accommodated by the addressee). The theoretical analysis is grounded in a discussion of data on evidentiality, egophoricity, pronouns of address, demonstrative reference, and tense and is based on literature review, as well as first-hand recordings of conversations in Wutun (mixed Sinitic language, China) and Mano (Mande, Guinea).
Comparative analysis of black queer feminist isiXhosa and English poetry
Chidi, Tsosheletso; Zondi, Nompumelelo Bernadette; Mkhize, Gabi (Tydskrif vir Letterkunde Association, 2024-06-26)
Black queer feminist literature remains under-researched. This reflects the societal marginalisation of black queer authors in South Africa. Our article offers a comparative analysis of the representation of black queer women by black queer and cisgender authors in selected isiXhosa and English poetry. The poems selected are from Unam Wena (2021) by Mthunzikazi Mbungwana and red cotton (2018) by vangile gantsho. Firstly, we explore how queer feminism is captured from a Xhosa perspective. Secondly, we explore how English is used to expose readers to black queerness, and, thirdly, we question how literary scholarship influences or limits black queer feminist literature and the functionality of queer feminist poetry as representations of black women. Discourse theory is used to examine how authors of the selected poetry construct knowledge about black queerness from a feminist perspective and shape how people understand it. In this article we adopt a narrative enquiry within the constructionism paradigm with qualitative textual analysis. Our analysis of the poetry reveals that, although the selected poets use two different languages, the same protest voice is foregrounded, with observable differences being primarily technical-namely how form, sound, and structure are employed to set the tone and mood in the issues addressed.
Geskiedenis van die Sepediskryfwyse
Esterhuyse, C.J.; Groenewald, P.S. (Pieter Schalk) (South African Association for Language Teaching, 1999-12)
The development of Sepedi as a written language extends over a period of 100 years, from 1870 to 1967 when the current orthography was finalised. The missionaries, who were to put Sepedi to writing, were members of the Berlin Missionary Society who arrived in South Africa in 1859. To fulfil their mission, they had to devise a writing system for Sepedi, because the translation of the Bible was their ultimate aim. In the development of Sepedi as a written language a clear distinction must be drawn between the period before October 1929 and the period thereafter. The period before October 1929 may be characterized as one of multiformity. Everyone wrote Sepedi as he thought best, since there was no coordinating body to control the development of the written form of Sepedi. The era after October 1929 is marked by the achievement of uniformity and standardisation. During this period an effort was made to create a uniform orthography for the written Sotho languages. At this point in time there were three written Sotho languages, namely, Sesotho (Southern Sotho), Setswana and Sepedi (Northern Sotho).
Gender stereotyping in Indlela yababi and Kuxolelwa abanjani? : a corpus linguistics approach
Mncwango, Lungile; Van Niekerk, Jacomien (Jacomina); Taljard, Elsabe (Elizabeth) (NISC (Pty) Ltd and Informa UK Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group), 2023)
In this article, we use corpus linguistics and critical discourse analysis to examine gender stereotyping in three isiZulu novels, namely Indlela yababi (‘The path of the wicked’) by RRR Dhlomo, Inkinsela yaseMgungundlovu (‘The tycoon of Pietermaritzburg’) by CLS Nyembezi, and Kuxolelwa abanjani? (‘Who deserves to be forgiven?’) by NG Sibiya. Our investigation regarding Inkinsela yaseMgungundlovu failed to deliver significant results, therefore our analysis is centred around the other two novels. Our focus is on the ways in which the body parts of female and male characters are used and described in the chosen texts. The article focuses on the following body parts: isandla and izandla (‘hand’ and ‘hands’), amehlo (‘eyes’), ikhanda (‘head’) and ubuso (‘face’). We investigate whether the ways in which female and male characters use their body parts and the ways in which they are described represent male and female characters stereotypically, as well as whether they reveal aspects of power relations between men and women. Our study employs the theoretical framework of gender studies. The results reveal that female characters are depicted as caring and supportive, emotional and beautiful, whereas male characters are depicted as courageous, in control of their emotions, aggressive and dangerous.
Consumptive and non-consumptive uses of water beetles (Aquatic coleopterans) in sub-Saharan traditional rituals
Mnisi, Lucky Nhlanhla; Zondi, Nompumelelo Bernadette; Pikirayi, Innocent (MDPI, 2023-09)
The use of wild animals in customary rituals and as a sustenance resource is a longstanding tradition within sub-Saharan Africa. The emergence of commercial trade, has, however, created unattainable demands and has led to the overexploitation of animals. These demands are threatening the conservation of animal species exploited in this trade. Comparatively little research effort has been dedicated to invertebrate species, and, specifically, their non-commercial uses. We explored the uses of water beetles in traditional rituals. We investigate the extent to which each of the non-commercial uses of water beetles exhibits consumptive and non-consumptive use features. The concepts are contested as their application for describing human–animal interactions has been challenged because of insufficient physiological and conservation data on the implications for animals of such interactions. The inadequacy of the available data pertaining to the use of animal resources was particularly pronounced. Most research efforts are skewed towards vertebrates at the expense of invertebrates. Regardless, the study shows that most non-commercial exploitation and uses of water beetles were mainly non-destructive and, if consumptive, the uses could be described as mainly nonlethal consumptive or sub-lethal consumptive. Rituals that could be described as lethal-consumptive comprised a smaller fraction of the uses of water beetles.

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