Farmer-livestock keepers land Use conflicts in the Kilombero Valley Floodplain, Morogoro Region, Tanzania

Abstract

Abstract Six decades of land reforms in Tanzania have reshaped the agricultural landscape, prominently featuring large-scale farms alongside traditional smallholder agriculture. Despite being seen as progressive, these reforms have created a dual legal system that complicates land rights in village lands, reflecting colonial legacies and development policies from other contexts. Smallholders, traditionally viewed as backward and undercapitalized, are in fact diverse, commercially oriented, and reliant on multiple income sources, especially in Kilombero district. This study critically analysed Tanzania’s rural development policies and land reforms from 1980 to 2022, focusing on the tensions arising from legal bifurcation between customary and statutory land systems amid increasing large-scale land acquisitions. Using an ethnographic, actor-cantered approach, the research highlighted how power dynamics and differing stakeholder interests shaped policy processes and outcomes, often marginalizing local communities and smallholders. Findings suggest that land-use conflicts are complex and driven by multiple factors, including policy weaknesses and socio-economic inequalities among smallholders. The study challenges dominant rural development narratives that assume smallholder homogeneity and expose the gap between policy assumptions and rural realities. By integrating empirical insights with political economy and legal pluralism frameworks, this research contributes to understanding the root causes of land conflicts in Tanzania and offers policy recommendations. It advocates for inclusive, context-sensitive land governance reforms that recognize smallholder diversity, strengthen customary rights, and ensure equitable access to land. Such reforms are essential for fostering sustainable rural development and reducing land-based conflicts.