Research Articles (Biokinetics, Sport and Leisure Sciences)

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Poor cardiorespiratory fitness in first year medical students at a South African University
(Taylor and Francis, 2024) Borresen, Jill; Celie, Bert; Laubscher, Ria; Bac, Martin; Wood, Paola; Camacho, Tanya Chantelle de Sousa; Nolte, Kim; Schwellnus, Marianne; Basu, Debashis; Schwellnus, Martin Peter; jill.borresen@up.ac.za
The personal health behaviours, including physical activity, of healthcare professionals influence their counselling practices as they relate to non-communicable diseases (NCDs). However, despite the importance of producing healthy, physically active graduates, there are limited data on the physical fitness of future healthcare professionals. This cross-sectional observational study determined the prevalence of below-average fitness in the four components of fitness in first-year university medical students. 152 participants (46 male, 106 female, 20.16 ± 2.69 years) completed cardiorespiratory fitness tests (submaximal step test), flexibility (sit-and-reach test), muscle strength (handgrip), and muscle endurance tests (sit-ups, push-ups). Sex differences were reported using one-way ANOVA or Chi square test and significance was set at p < 0.05. The prevalence (%) of below-average fitness was 69.54% for cardiorespiratory, 25.66% for handgrip strength, 65.79% for sit-ups, 23.03% for push-ups and 7.24% for flexibility. Physical fitness parameters (mean±standard deviation (SD)) were compared between sexes, where it was found that females were more flexible than males (40.61 ± 8.40 cm vs 36.70 ± 9.31 cm, p = 0.012). Males had better handgrip strength (88.96 ± 12.04 kg vs 59.34 ± 10.36 kg, p < 0.001), muscle endurance sit-ups (33.46 ± 9.04 vs 24.48 ± 12.18, p < 0.001) and push-ups (30.28 ± 13.95 vs 24.27 ± 12.35, p = 0.009). First-year medical students have poor physical fitness, notably cardiorespiratory fitness and muscle strength, which are important markers for NCD risk assessment. Tertiary institutions training healthcare professionals should consider developing interventions to improve students’ physical fitness thereby influencing their health, wellbeing, academic performance and future counselling practices.
The ego phenomenon and the doping problem in sport : a historical conceptual analysis
(Frontiers Research Foundation, 2021-11-10) Steyn, B.J.M. (Barend Johannes Marthinus); Nolte, Kim; kim.nolte@up.ac.za
The concept of ego has various meanings in the field of psychology, depending on the paradigmatic and theoretical framework point of departure. The ego phenomenon as operationalized and measured in the theoretical framework of goal orientation will be the contextual framework for a historical conceptual analysis. In the past three decades, research in the theoretical framework of goal orientation has revealed a positive relationship between ego involvement and the tendency to use the prohibited substances to enhance performance in sport. The concept of the ego phenomenon as operationalized within goal orientation theory and meanings attached to the concept can be connected to the historic oriental writings that were written 2,500 years ago. These attached meanings to the ego phenomenon include elements of extreme competitiveness and outcome orientation, as well as social comparisons and the external norms for the measurement of success and failure. These meanings can be traced back to the classical works involving the Bhagavad Gita, the Tao Te Ching, and the Eastern Origins ofMindfulness that are part of the broader Buddhist philosophical system.Meister Eckhart, a 12th century German theologian, in his significant contribution on the analysis of the having mode as opposed to the being mode also provides insight into the ego phenomenon that can explain why the ego phenomenon can be linked to some of the deeper psychological motives of using the prohibited substances. The researchers in psychology do not yet have a full understanding of why certain athletes dope or have a susceptibility to use the prohibited substances or performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) and thus the motivation for this historical conceptual analysis of the ego phenomenon. Therefore, this article aimed to deepen the understanding of psychological motives of the athletes who exhibit tendencies toward cheating in general and the proclivity to use the prohibited substances.
Skills development or talent identification? An exploration of sport development initiatives in three previously disadvantaged communities in Tshwane, South Africa
(Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 2020) Botha, Janine; Van der Klashorst, Engela
The development of skilled athletes and players is an important step towards creating a winning sporting nation. Even though there are a variety of approaches that can be used to develop the sport skills of young athletes, the overall consensus is that this process takes time. This study explores the sport development approach currently used in sport development programmes in the previously disadvantaged communitiesa of Atteridgeville, Eersterust and Mamelodi in Tshwane, South Africa, by distinguishing between two phases in sport development, namely talent identification and skills development. The study utilised a qualitative research approach with key informant sampling comprised of sport administrators and coaches involved in sport development. Data were collected by means of document analysis and semi-structured interviews which were transcribed and coded using Atlas.ti 8 software. It was concluded that the current sport development initiatives available to athletes aged between 7 and 18 years, residing in previously disadvantaged communities in Tshwane portray characteristics of talent identification rather than a skills development approach. Recommendations include provision of additional support to non-governmental organisations (NGOs) active in providing young athletes the opportunity to develop both sport and life skills in Sport for Development (SfD) initiatives.
Physical education in Gauteng schools, South Africa : a case study
(Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 2020-12) Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth)
The global survival and revitalization of physical education (PE) in schools have been the priority of experts and lobbyists for decades. On the African continent, especially, efforts to reawaken PE escalated in the recent past. A qualitative, exploratory study with comparative case study analysis was used in a purposive sample. Gauteng public schools were used as units of analysis across geographic area (rural, township, urban) and socio-economic categorisation (Quintiles 1 to 5). The study was based on the research methodology described in the national analysis of the state and status of Physical Education in South African public schools (Burnett, 2018) replicated in all nine provinces of the country. Results were analysed according to the policy framework and curriculum documents used, positioning of PE in schools, methods of delivery, resources and perceptions of teachers, learners and parents. A significant conclusion which emerged from this study is the stark contrast in the status and perceptions of PE between primary and secondary schools. An alarming finding is the sportification and conceptual confusion of PE. It is recommended that the Department of Basic Education (DBE) revises the PE curriculum in the CAPS policy document, especially in secondary schools and in schools for learners with special needs. Generalist teachers should also be orientated to the unique aspects of teaching PE. Assessment practices must be monitored and evaluated.
Twitter as barometer of public opinion on the female athlete : the case of Caster Semenya
(LAM Publications Limited, 2018-12) Van der Klashorst, Engela; Safarikova, Simona
Twitter is a social platform that has become well-known for the controversial opinions posted by politicians and celebrities. Caster Semenya became an overnight topic on Twitter with an overwhelming number of people posting opinions about whether she is male or female, and how that affects her participation in international athletics. This research utilised the gender controversy around Caster Semenya to explore how Twitter can be used as a barometer of public perceptions of the female athlete in sport. Thematic analysis of Tweets around the Caster Semenya controversy did not only illustrate a deep divide in public opinion on the female athlete but also highlighted an often hidden, racial classification. It concludes, however, that even though perceptions are still influenced by entrenched cultural beliefs, gender stereotypes are being questioned.
Essential competencies in contemporary applied sport psychology : comparative perspectives from South Africa and the United Kingdom
(LAM Publications Limited, 2016-03) Jooste, J.; Kruger, A.; Steyn, B.J.M. (Barend Johannes Marthinus); Edwards, D.J.
Investigation of essential competencies in present-day sport psychology practice is critical to keeping the training, education and regulation standards of applied sport psychology (ASP) practitioners at the forefront of research (Fletcher & Maher, 2013). Moreover, investigation is also needed to offer a new rationale for promoting academic inquiry in developed and developing contexts. This study identified essential competencies in contemporary sport psychology practice and explored the comparative views of a purposefully selected sample (n=9) of expert ASP practitioners/psychologists. Data were gathered by means of semi-structured interviews with stakeholders in South Africa (SA) and the United Kingdom (UK). Interview data were analyzed using thematic content analyses. Main findings suggested that a relational and dependable character, a client-centred focus, an all-encompassing counselling skills-set (facilitative and restorative), and explicit expertise in the domains of psychology, sport and sport science are indispensable to current sport psychology practice. Views generated by both stakeholders were remarkably similar and overlapped considerably, which indicated the advanced levels of sport psychology praxis in both contexts. It was recommended that behavioural indicators (personal character) and certain skills prerequisites merit special consideration for candidates entering ASP training and practice. An interdisciplinary training model in ASP with acquired competency in both kinesiology and psychology-based training should become the accepted standard in the training and development of practitioners for the purpose of garnering an inclusive capacity to render client-centred services.
A comparison between skinfold callipers and ultrasound imaging for assessing body composition in recreationally active students
(Ergonomics Society of South Africa, 2016) Nolte, Kim; Nolte, Heinrich W.; Van der Merwe, Reon A.; Van der meulen, Julia; Helena, Cindy A.
The measurement of skinfold thickness by means of skinfold callipers (SC) is a widely accepted method to assess subcutaneous fat thickness and percentage body fat (%BF). Ultrasound imaging (USI) is a more recent technology that is becoming accessible for the same application. The objective of this study was to compare measurements recorded by SC and USI for the assessment of subcutaneous fat thickness in order to estimate %BF. Thirty adults volunteered for the study. Body mass, stature and subcutaneous fat thickness for seven sites were measured. Strong (p<0.01) correlations were found between SC and USI measurements for all the sites except for the abdomen. Despite significant (p<0.05) differences for fat thickness of all sites, there was no significant (p>0.05) difference between the %BF determined by the two methods (SC=19.5±6.4 %BF and USI = 19.0±6.3 %BF). However, levels of agreement indicated that the USI could over- or underestimate %BF by ±10%. This resulted in %BF estimation errors which are deemed too large from a clinical perspective. Additional studies are recommended to investigate the lack of agreement and bias highlighted between the two methods.
Mindfulness : a foothold for Rogers's humanistic person-centred approach
(Routledge, 2015-11) Jooste, Julius; Kruger, Ankebé; Steyn, B.J.M. (Barend Johannes Marthinus); Edwards, David John
This article probed and contextualised the strong parallels between meditation derived mindfulness and Rogers’s humanistic person-centred (PC) approach. This was done through a conceptual and evaluative literature review of the PC framework in relation to definitive descriptions of mindfulness. Elements of mindfulness within the core conditions of PC therapy were explored and verified. Quotations, pragmatic, behavioural descriptions and explications provided evidence of a shared ideology inherent in both concepts via “way of being”. The findings suggested that mindfulness cultivates, harmonises and deepens essential therapist qualities in PC therapy. This review article could supply a rationale for significant inferences in the implementation of meditation-inspired activities in the practical preparation of trainee therapists as well as optimising proficiency and refinement in professional practice.
Formative reflections of university recreation science students in South Africa as catalyst for an adapted service-learning program
(The Australian Association of Adult and Community, 2016-04) Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth); Van der Klashorst, Engela; Kluka, Darlene Ann; Van Wyk, Johannes G.U.; jgu.vanwyk@up.ac.za
Community-university partnerships through service-learning have progressively developed as part of institutions of higher education’s mission statements. This paper explores the qualitative reflections of 410 undergraduate students enrolled in an academic recreation science course on a first time service-learning experience in South Africa. The study asks the question: ‘how can pre-service and formative reflections used in a social constructive approach impact on collaborative, indepth learning?’ Students were tasked to keep reflective journals to express concerns as pre-service-learning and formative reflections over a four week, twenty hour service-learning experience. The servicelearning program aligned with the social constructivism principles of collaborative learning, which occurred under the guidance and supervision of a lecturer, was embedded in a realistic problem, required collaborative problem solving and collaboration with the community partner and involved self-direction and self-management of students. Both pre-service and formative reflection themes changed over the three year study period. Results suggested that the initial service-learning experience did not contribute to a positive attitude towards community engagement and did not contribute to skill development. Results of the study confirmed the value of reflection as a tool in service-learning and commensurate with the overall aim and purpose of service-learning in institutions of higher education.
Physical, anthropometric and physiological profiles of experienced junior male and female South African Taekwondo athletes
(Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 2015-12-31) Mathunjwa, M.L.; Mugandani, S.C.; Ngcobo, M.; Djarova-Daniels, T.; Ivanov, S.
The research was aimed at identifying the anthropometric, physical and physiological characteristics of junior Taekwondo athletes to achieve an international status. Data were collected from 25 males and 11 females aged 15.5 ±2.6 years. Measurements consisted of body composition (body fat percentage (%BF), sum of 6 skinfolds), flexibility (sit & reach, hip flexor (HF) and quadriceps flexibility (QF), lower extremity explosive power (vertical jump (Diff VJ) and vertical jump relative power (R Power), muscle endurance (sit-ups and push-ups), muscular strength (handgrip right and left), hexagonal agility (HEX) and agility T-test, aerobic power (20 m bleep test (20MST) converted to maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max.). Data were analyzed using t-test for independent samples and Z-score statistics. Significant higher %BF and sum of skinfolds were recorded in junior female players. No differences in body mass, stature and BMI were found. Male athletes had higher (p<0.001) VO2max (42.2±6.8 ml/kg/min) compared to females (31.7±6.5 ml/kg/min). Female athletes showed lower (p<0.001) results in push-ups (9.0±6.5 reps) compared to males (25.6±10.5 reps). Maximal grip strength (kg) of both hands was higher (p<0.05) in males. No differences in sit-ups, explosive leg power and agility were found between males and females. The analysis of individual Z-score for assessment of fitness variables has practical implications contributing to the trainability and performance of junior taekwondo athletes.
Management capacity at sport and recreation facilities on local government level
(Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 2015-12) Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth); Sere, M.G.O.; Kluka, Darlene Ann; anneliese.goslin@up.ac.za
The mandate of public local government is to provide services to constituents to improve overall quality of life. Local governments are increasingly pressured to provide services that reflect value for taxpayers' money and promise sustainable development. Sustainable development is, in turn,dependent upon quality decisions by political leaders and management capacity of civil servants. This study aimed to (1) determine the management capacity profile at sport and recreation facilities on local government level; and (2) identify areas of concern related to management capacity. The research design used was a quantitative, case study with a non-probability purposive sample (n=8). Although the purposive sample of eight recreation and sport facility managers is small, these respondents are responsible for managing 68% of the sport and recreation facilities within the scope of this investigation. Data was collected using the criteria based Capacity Analysis Tool self-administered questionnaire consisting of 88 sub-elements overeight dimensions of management (leadership, governance and strategy; administration and human resources; finances and budget of the facility; project design, management and evaluation; technical capacity; advocacy and networking; community ownership and accountability; and fund raising) and has a Cronbach Alpha value of 0.89 (x=0.89). Results indicated that the internalsystemic management capacity of the particular department in this investigation measured unsatisfactory ( x ± 2.50) in five of the eight management dimensions. While three dimensions scored satisfactory ( x ± 2.50) the overall collective management capacity score for all eight dimensions was unsatisfactory at x =2.33. As scholars proved a link between management capacity and organizational performance, the management capacity profile obtained from this study can be used as baseline from which management practices and capacity at sport and recreation facilities can be further developed.
A cross-over from sport psychology to the psychology of music : an intervention study on undergraduate music students
(Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 2015-06) Steyn, B.J.M. (Barend Johannes Marthinus); Steyn, Margaretha Helena; Maree, David J.F.; Panebianco-Warrens, Clorinda Rosanna; ben.steyn@up.ac.za
The primary aim of this research was to evaluate whether the cross-over from Sport Psychology to the Psychology of Music in terms of the knowledge base, intervention Psychological Skills Training (PST) protocols and psychometric measurements was meaningful. A second aim was to ascertain whether the psychological skills levels and mindfulness levels per se have improved amongst the undergraduate students. Extensive research on psychological benefits of PST in sport has been conducted in Sport Psychology, with unambiguously positive results. Mindfulness training, and specifically the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment (MAC) approach have been applied in sport and as in the case of PST, it has not yet been fully utilized in the context of music. This specific combination of PST and the MAC approach were tested on undergraduate music students in a seven-week intervention program. A quasi-experimental design was implemented in this research. Voluntary participation was adopted to ensure that the participants were fully engaged in and committed to this study. A convenience sample of 36 undergraduate music students from the Department of Music at the University of Pretoria was selected. The experimental group consisted of 21 students, and the remaining 15 students composed of the control group. Within the experimental group significant improvements in performance anxiety, psychological skills and mindfulness indicated that the cross-over from the performanceevaluative context of sport to music was meaningful and partially successful.
Exploring public recreation service delivery under two political ideologies in South Africa - 1948-2006
(South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 2015) Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth); Kluka, Darlene Ann; anneliese.goslin@up.ac.za
This study aimed to explore the provision of public recreation to the citizens of South Africa under two distinct political ideologies of ‘Apartheid’ and the current democratic political system. Results from this qualitative and descriptive study of public recreation provision under two distinct political ideologies in South African apartheid and democracy are presented. Five themes emerged from an inductive content analysis: Philosophy and policies of public recreation service provision; Governance of public recreation provision; Legislation related to public recreation provision; Public recreation programmes and initiatives; and Recreation training and education initiatives. Findings suggested that similarities and differences of service provision existed, and neither of the two ideologies succeeded in optimising public recreation provision as instruments of social transformation to support the notion that public recreation benefits all. Although the political ideology of democracy brought progress and structure in terms of recreation policy, legislation, education and training, fragmentation of governance structures, lack of coordination, and a myopic focus on physical recreation were evident under both ideologies. It seems as if most South African citizens continue to be excluded from recreation access and opportunities as a social space conducive to individual exploration, reflecting social, cultural intellectual and spiritual growth.
The correlation between the health-related fitness of healthy participants measured at home as opposed to fitness measured by sport scientists in a laboratory
(Medpharm Publications, 2014) Grant, C.C. (Catharina Cornelia); Janse van Rensburg, Dina Christina; Pepper, Michael Sean; Du Toit, Peet J.; Wood, Paola Silvia; Ker, James A.; Kruger, P.E. (Pieter Ernst); Grobbelaar, C.W. (Craig); Nolte, Kim; Fletcher, F.; Grant, T.C. (Thelani); rina.grant@up.ac.za
BACKGROUND : Fitness is defined in the health context as a state of good health or physical condition, primarily as a result of exercise and proper nutrition. Conventional methods of measuring fitness are expensive, time consuming and require specialised methods. There is a need for noninvasive, fast methods of assessing health-related fitness and activity in athlete and non-athlete populations. The aim of this study was to establish any correlation between participants’ self-assessed health-related fitness (HRF) index and the HRF index determined by sports scientists, as well as the laboratory-assessed HRF index and maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) determined by sports scientists via direct methods in a laboratory, and finally, to determine any potential correlation between an activity-recall questionnaire (Kasari) and VO2max. METHOD : The participants consisted of 169 male and female volunteers between the ages of 18 and 55 years, taking neither supplements nor medication. The University of Pretoria’s HRF index protocol was first carried out by participants on their own at home, and then in the laboratory under the supervision of sport scientists. The complete datasets of 150 participants were statistically analysed to establish correlations. RESULTS : The results indicated highly significant and substantial correlations (ρ = 0.696, p < 0.001) between the participants’ self-assessed HRF index and measurements by the sports scientists. There were moderate correlations between the laboratoryassessed HRF index and the direct VO2max (ρ = 0 512, p < 0.005), as well as the indirect VO2max (ρ = 0.588; p < 0.001). A significant correlation was found between the self-assessed HRF index and the indirect VO2max (ρ = 0.454; p < 0.001). The Kasari questionnaire correlated only weakly with the indirect VO2max (ρ = 0.278, p < 0.002) and not at all with the direct VO2max (ρ = 0.072, p = 0.731). CONCLUSION : Indications are that this test protocol may be conducted at home by individuals, without supervision, to determine exercise ability or fitness, or to monitor changes in physical fitness, thereby limiting expenses and costs.
An argument for the struggles to de-racialise South African sport : the Olympic movement's response, 1896-1946
(AJPHERD (South Africa), 2014-12) Nongogo, P.; Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth); Van Wyk, Johannes G.U.
This historical review examines the background to the struggles against inequality, discrimination and the fight to deracialise South African sport. South Africa has a long history of racial discrimination. The struggles for political freedom and for all-race-inclusive or non-racial sport were generally intertwined. The sports struggle’s methods and tactics evolved with time given their duration and complexity. This review aims to undertake an historical overview of the influences and precursors to the initiation of the struggles to deracialise South African sport, which culminated in the sports boycott in the 1960s. This is critical particularly if the view that history teaches respect for insights from the past is held and appreciated. Britain and South Africa have always been strategically linked and important to each other and as such the former became the main target of black people’s diplomatic efforts after 1910. By the 1950s, the oppressed people’s hope had shifted to the United Nations, the newly-independent African states and the Olympic Movement. South Africa’s official participation in the Olympic Games between 1908 and 1960 racially discriminated against black sportspersons; the early challenge to this problem was observed in the 1940s but radical struggles began in the 1950s. The Non-Racial Sports Movement (NRSM) and the Anti-Apartheid Movement undertook protracted struggles to deracialise South African sport. The NRSM petitioned and challenged the constituents of the Olympic Movement, locally and abroad, for support to resolve the racial problem in the country’s sport, until the International Olympic Committee expelled the racist National Olympic Committee of South Africa in 1970. The sports struggles however continued until they were controversially halted in the early 1990s. This is a literature study and is grounded in a qualitative, historical descriptive research design, with the aim of generating a body of knowledge to contextualise the background influences to the initiation of the early challenge to South Africa’s racial sports problem, between 1890s and the 1940s.
African musical rhythm : an overlooked factor in East Africa's middle and long distance running success?
(Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 2014-12) Van der Klashorst, Engela; Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth); engela.vanderklashorst@up.ac.za
This review article presents the contribution of rhythm as socio-cultural contributor to the dominance of East-African distance athletes. It aimed to qualitatively review similarities between growing up in music, bodily participation in music performances, rhythmic structures, polyrhythms, hemiola and syncopation and flow as elements of music and success of East African distance runners. Results of the review in general, suggest that East African music reflects the rhythm of life and performs a crucial function by integrating rhythm and human movement, including distance running as specific manifestation of human movement. It seems if East African runners perceive the function of rhythm differently than western runners and could have the ability to weave complex rhythms together in their running by interlocking and crossing different rhythmic patterns and structures. Because East-African runners grow up with and within rhythm through their music traditions and bodily participation in music performances, they most likely succeed to “live” rhythm in their distance running as opposed to western athletes who often deconstruct the running motion into different elements and implement a “learn to run” approach. Experience in and exposure to the polyrhythms of drumming as significant element of East African music could contribute to the distance runners being able to experience “flow” in their running. The broad findings of this conceptual review could have several significant implications for distance training in western countries as well as sport coach education syllabi.
The incidence of chronic low back pain on employment status in working adults in South Africa
(Ergonomics Society of South Africa (ESSA), 2014) Billson, John Henry; Kruger, P.E. (Pieter Ernst); ernst.kruger@up.ac.za
Low back pain has become one of the most influential musculoskeletal disorders of modern society. Exercise has been shown to be very effective in the treatment of chronic low back pain. The goal of the study was to test the effect of two exercise intervention programmes (conservative or progressive-aggressive programmes) for 12 weeks on low back muscle strength as well as psychological factors in participants with chronic low back pain. In total 32 participants were recruited for the study and randomly assigned to two exercise groups. However, due to medical and work related reasons a number of subjects dropped out. At the end there were 10 subjects in the conservative exercise group and 11 in the progressive-aggressive group. Statistically significant differences at the 5% level of significance were found at the post-test measurements between the two groups. The results from the present study indicate that both types of programmes have shown to be very effective in the treatment of chronic low back pain, but that an aggressive-progressive exercise programme may be slightly more effective than a more conservative exercises programme.
Women and sport leadership : perceptions of Malawi women educated in sport business leadership
(Southern African Alliance for Sport Science, Physical Education and Recreation, 2014) Goslin, Anneliese E. (Anna Elizabeth); Kluka, Darlene Ann; annaliese.goslin@up.ac.za
Traditional beliefs, cultural expectations and attitudes regarding the position of women in society still exist in the sub-Saharan African patrimonial society. Gender inequality in Africa’s regional and national sport organisations and governance structures is a reality and empirical work on women in sport leadership is lacking. This qualitative investigation is embedded in social constructivism as conceptual framework, which attempted to explore the perceived effect of a sport leadership education program in Malawi. The effect of leadership education is contextually perceived and although the challenge to integrate African leadership and traditional western leadership models is recognised, it was not the aim of this study. The study aimed to understand the leadership experiences of females in a Malawi sport context and sought to reveal if sport leadership development initiatives like this are expected to be merely opportunities to transfer knowledge or if it could affect the self-worth and “voice” of female sport leaders in Malawi. Findings suggest that completing the sport leadership education programme positively affected not only individual self-worth but also the collective voice of female sport leaders. It is proposed that similar courses are expanded and introduced to other sub-Saharan African countries and to research the perceived effect.
Standardisation of Bull's mental skills questionnaire in South Africa and the United Kingdom
(Southern African Alliance for Sport Science, Physical Education and Recreation, 2014) Edwards, David John; Steyn, B.J.M. (Barend Johannes Marthinus); Buscombe, Richard M.; Edwards, Stephen D.; Denyer, Philip; Grobbelaar, Heinrich W.
The contemporary science of sport and exercise psychology requires the standardisation of mental skills questionnaires to facilitate accurate assessment of and intervention for individuals and groups in various health and sport related contexts. The study presents international research findings regarding the standardisation of a Mental Skills Scale with a sample of university students (N=420) from South Africa (n=211) and the United Kingdom (n=209) respectively. Although further international and national standardisation in both English and other languages is recommended, factor and reliability analyses indicated satisfactory validity and reliability of the current English version of the scale.
Doping in sport : attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of competitive high-school athletes in Gauteng Province
(Health and Medical Publishing Group, 2014) Nolte, Kim; Steyn, B.J.M. (Barend Johannes Marthinus); Kruger, P.E. (Pieter Ernst); Fletcher, Lizelle; kim.nolte@up.ac.za
OBJECTIVE. To determine the attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of talented young athletes residing in Gauteng regarding prohibited performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) and anti-doping rules and regulations. METHODS. This was a survey study using a quantitative research approach. South African TuksSport academy athletes at the High Performance Centre, University of Pretoria, and competitive high-school athletes at four private high schools in Gauteng completed the survey. A selfdetermined, structured questionnaire was used to establish the attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of the athletes. RESULTS. A total of 346 (208 males, 138 females) athletes, mean (standard deviation) age 16.9 (1.4) years participated in the survey. According to this survey, 3.9% of the athletes in this survey admitted to using a prohibited PED and more than 14.0% of the athletes said they would consider using a prohibited PED if they knew they would not get caught. Ambition (46.0%) and emotional pressure (22.5%) were the primary reasons why the athletes would consider using prohibited PEDs. Even though coaches appeared to be one of the main sources of information (on PEDs and anti-doping rules), only 42.1% of the athletes felt that they were well informed. CONCLUSION. Controlling doping by means of testing is important. However, it may be necessary to put more emphasis on changing attitudes towards doping and implementing additional educational programmes.

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