Theses and Dissertations (Marketing Management)

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Investigating zero waste behaviours amongst South African consumers
(University of Pretoria, 2024-07) Wiese, Melanie; Humbani, Michael; odiabotha@gmail.com; Botha, Euodia Isabella
This article-based PhD study investigates zero waste (ZW) behaviours amongst South African consumers. The study takes a 5R approach to studying ZW, meaning ZW is defined as consisting of five dimensions namely refuse (consumers refuse what they do not need), reduce (consumers reduce their consumption), reuse (consumers use reusable, refillable, rechargeable alternatives), recycle and rot (compost). Specifically, article 1 uses the original theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to investigate whether attitudes and subjective norms affect consumers’ intention to adopt ZW behaviours (ZW behavioural intent). The moderating role of perceived behavioural control and socio-demographic influences are also investigated. Article 2 investigates whether conspicuous consumption and status consumption that takes place on social media, can strengthen the relationship between ZW intentions and ZW behaviours, and consequently help close the attitude-intention-behaviour gap (the green gap) that often exists with regard to sustainable behaviours. Article 3 clusters or segments consumers according to their ZW behaviours to suggest targeted marketing strategies for each segment. The rationale for the study is strongly influenced by the United Nations’ (UN) sustainable development goals (SDGs) and the need for transformative consumer research (TCR). Statistical analyses used include SEM and multigroup SEM analyses (articles 1 and 2), a two-step cluster analysis and application of the analytical hierarchy process (AHP)(article 3).
Travellers' digital media use and risk perceptions: Implications for emerging destinations' digital media marketing and competitiveness
(University of Pretoria, 2023-11-23) Du Preez, Elizabeth; siphiwemandina@gmail.com; Mandina, Siphiwe P.
The success of tourism lies in a destination’s competitiveness. This is determined by a destination’s ability to extend a mix of benefits distinct from what competition is offering; one of them being destination image. Behavioural intentions to revisit are fuelled by a positive brand image strengthened through destination marketing. The ultimate goal is to enhance destination competitiveness. Destination competitiveness is significantly influenced by travel risk perceptions. As a result, the recovery of a destination’s brand image is contingent on the way in which travel risk perceptions are managed. In addition, these perceptions are undeniably a strong precondition for behavioural intentions to revisit. Such perceptions can be shaped by the nature of information shared on social media about a destination’s resilience during a crisis. Tourists are more reliant on external sources of information, and therefore, find it risky to travel in an unsafe environment. Destination image is shaped by travel risk perceptions, which in turn play a fundamental role in influencing revisit intentions. As a result, tourism demand is influenced by travel risk perceptions, especially during a crisis or pandemic such as COVID-19. The use of digital media in destination marketing has shown great potential in building competitive and resilient tourism destinations. Advances in Information and Communications Technology (ICT), therefore, act as an enabler of destination competitiveness especially when leisure tourists use digital media when visiting emerging destinations. Digital media marketing shows great potential to influence destination competitiveness through image by facilitating convenience and engagement with tourists. Digital media have eventually become a popular ‘accessory’ among travellers through their usage features. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of two demand conditions on the competitiveness of emerging destinations. The study was structured around two phases, therefore the two demand conditions were investigated as follows: Phase 1: travel risk perceptions amidst a crisis; Phase 2: digital media usage (i.e., technology readiness, technology acceptance, digital media preferences). In Phase 1, the relationship between destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit was tested. Further, moderation tests were done to determine the influence of travel risk perceptions on the relationship between destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit brands South Africa and Zimbabwe amidst a crisis, more specifically COVID-19. In Phase 2, the study sought to determine the antecedents (technology readiness, technology acceptance, digital media preferences) and outcomes (destination image, behavioural intentions to revisit) of the use of different digital media by leisure tourists during travels. Understanding the above relationships can lead to effective understanding of how travel risk intentions influence behavioural intentions to revisit. As a result, the management of travel risk perceptions and effective application of digital media marketing, in turn, will lead to a competitive destination. The case studies of South Africa and Zimbabwe were used as two competing tourism destinations within Sub-Saharan Africa. The study incorporated two theoretical foundations from which to study destination competitiveness via brand image. In Phase 1, the theory was built around branding and risk perceptions, while Phase 2 presented a theoretical foundation on technology adoption in order to contextualise leisure tourists’ technology readiness and acceptance to use different types of digital media during travel. The digital media under study were introduced and explained in view of their relevance to digital marketing in tourism. This presented an argumentation on the motivation of the study. The literature review started off with an examination of destination competitiveness models, current trends in international, emerging destinations, and Sub-Saharan Africa tourism was reviewed to provide a firm foundation of the background to the study. This was followed by a review of literature on destination image, which is a key indicator of destination competitiveness. Given the impact of COVID-19 on destination competitiveness, travellers’ risk perceptions could not be overlooked. Literature was examined to have more understanding of leisure tourists’ travel risk perceptions and their behavioural intentions to revisit the two emerging destinations during the COVID-19 pandemic. This provided the basis for arguing in favour of the use of digital media during travel, especially during a pandemic like COVID-19. This was a necessary call due to the rapid decline in arrivals globally caused by COVID-19. Literature was also reviewed to determine the extent of ICT adoption in emerging destinations as well as ICT readiness and destination images of those destinations. Two conceptual models were developed for each Phase. In Phase 1, the independent variables included cognitive and affective brand image, while the dependent variable was behavioural intentions to revisit, along with risk perceptions as moderator. In Phase 2, the independent variables were technology readiness, technology acceptance and digital media preferences, with digital media usage, destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit as dependents respectively. To achieve the study aim and achieve the objectives of the two phases, a post-positivist research paradigm was adopted, where a modified quantitative technique was applied. A cross-sectional survey was done using an online structured questionnaire containing a few open ended questions to bring clarity on the issue of travel risk perceptions. A cross-sectional survey was done using an online structured questionnaire containing a few open ended questions to bring clarity on the issue of travel risk perceptions. However, while the study might be considered generalisable due to the extensive quantitative data gathered from the population, the qualitative data cannot be viewed in the same light. Qualitative data in this study merely reflects the travel risk perceptions of a few individuals. However, despite the limited amount of data on travel risk perceptions, some interesting trends were observed that warrant further investigation in future studies. A total sample of 251 was achieved of which 124 had visited South Africa (SA), 184 Zimbabwe (Zim), and 57 had visited both countries. The questionnaire was hosted on the Qualtrics platform from 23 November 2020 to 31 May 2021. South African Tourism (SAT) and ZIMPARKS also distributed the questionnaire to international leisure tourists, in their databases, who had visited South Africa and Zimbabwe respectively. Having encountered a slow response rate (considering that the survey was launched a few months after COVID-19 had started), the researcher also shared the survey link through other means (i.e., via LinkedIn and colleagues). In both stages, convenient random sampling was conducted through available cases and snowball sampling. Analysis in Phase 1 was done through thematic analysis for qualitative data. Scale refinement for destination image, travel risk perceptions and behavioural intentions, was done through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and lastly, moderated multiple regressions were done to determine whether travel risk perceptions influence the relationship between destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit. In Phase 2, factor dimensionality and reliability were done through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to confirm Technology Readiness Index (TRI) and Technology Acceptance model (TAM) factors. EFA was done for digital media usage. During the EFA, digital media usage was split into utilitarian and hedonic use. A series of regressions (multiple and hierarchical) were done to test the hypothesised relationships between TRI, TAM, digital media preferences, destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit variables. Results from Phase 1 indicated that risk perceptions had varied effects on the relationships between affective and cognitive brand image and behavioural intentions to revisit. During EFA, cognitive was split into two factors (i.e., Cognitive image 1 and Cognitive image 2) for both countries. Affective image emerged as one factor for South Africa and two for Zimbabwe (i.e., Affective image 1 and Affective image 2). Results show that in the absence of risk, both cognitive and affective images significantly positively influenced tourists’ behavioural intentions to revisit destinations South Africa and Zimbabwe. In the case of South Africa, the effect of Cognitive image 1 (shopping facilities, man-made attractions, services, general, transportation infrastructure and nightlife) on behavioural intentions to revisit was significantly moderated by travel risk perceptions. For Zimbabwe, travel risk perceptions significantly moderated the effect of Cognitive image 2 (scenery and landscape, natural attractions, climate, available tourist activities and hospitality of the locals) on behavioural intentions to revisit. None of South Africa’s affective image attributes were moderated by travel risk perceptions. However, for Zimbabwe, both Affective image 1 (relaxing, safe, accessible, innovative, and progressive) and Affective image 2 (interesting, authentic, entertaining, and pleasant) were significantly moderated by travel risk perceptions. The above variations indicate that destination image varies between destinations and so do travel risk perceptions. High risk factors (drawn from EFAs) such as concern over the possibility of contracting COVID-19 during travel, had more influence on the above relationships. Furthermore, the feeling of coming into contact with strangers during the COVID-19 pandemic was also a major risk due to fear of contracting the virus when travelling to the two destinations. Overall, results show that the existing destination brand image perceptions were not strong enough for both South Africa and Zimbabwe (even though they may be positive) to keep the revisit intentions positive given the contagion and life-threatening nature of COVID-19. Digital media marketing has the power to portray a destination’s image as risky or safe. This is because a destination’s brand image can either be induced or organic depending on how it is portrayed in the media. Tourists depend on media for important destination information, therefore digital media marketing could emerge as an effective way of brand image recovery during and post crisis. The main thrust of Phase 2 is, therefore, to build onto the significant role of digital media-enabled destination brand image on behavioural intentions to revisit and ultimately competitiveness. Results from Phase 2 show that technology readiness and technology acceptance statistically significantly influence digital media usage by leisure tourists visiting the two emerging destinations. Results also show that hedonic and utilitarian digital media usage influence the affective image of a destination, while only utilitarian digital media usage influenced behavioural intentions to revisit. Findings show that despite high levels of technology insecurity, leisure tourists still used immersive digital media (3-D virtual reality videos and 3-D city tour guide), recommender apps (Foursquare) and social media sites (YouTube, TripAdvisor, and Facebook) during travel. Preferences for digital media that allowed online sharing of tourism experiences and those that provided travel safety information were the main antecedents to hedonic and utilitarian digital media usage, after accounting for technology readiness and technology acceptance. Affective image emerged as the only destination image factor influencing behavioural intentions to revisit, after accounting for technology readiness, technology acceptance, digital media usage and digital media preferences. This was true for both destinations. The study contributes to our theoretical understanding of the study of destination competitiveness underpinned by destination brand image. Despite the extensive research on destination competitiveness, a major theoretical contribution was the development of the digital media preferences scale, where six features emerged as measurement items. This study also makes a novel contribution to the body of knowledge and destination marketing practice by revealing the specific digital media preferences linked to usage type (hedonic and utilitarian). In addition, the study also revealed specific digital media preferences linked to positive destination image formations and those linked to behavioural intentions to revisit. This is facilitated by an investigation of the effects of travel risk perceptions amidst a crisis and digital media usage on a destination’s competitiveness. Within the framework of competitiveness, destination images vary between destinations, as well as the digital media usage profile of travellers. This serves as a learning point for policy makers and Destination Marketing Organisations (DMO) to consider hedonic and utilitarian affordances of different types of digital media when formulating digital media marketing strategies. This study helps marketers understand how travel risk perceptions, digital media preferences and digital media-enabled destination (cognitive and affective) images influence destination competitiveness. Policy makers and DMOs can mitigate travel risk perceptions through effectively applying relevant digital media types that enable portrayal of safety in different formats. This will build confidence among travellers during uncertain times such as the COVID-19 pandemic as the background to this study. A call to action for incessant research is inevitable, given the continuous advances in technological developments and the dynamic nature of destination competitiveness. Over the years, international travel has intensified rivalry among competing destinations. As a result, a destination’s brand image and tourists’ travel behaviour have an exponential relationship with the competitiveness of a destination.
The role of consumer spending self-control in the relationship between psychological needs and well-being
(University of Pretoria, 2023-07) Jordaan, Yolanda; Van der Westhuizen, Liezl-Marié; Laureane.duplessis@gmail.com; Du Plessis, Laureane
Many South African consumers struggle to make ends meet and consequently spend beyond their means. Although consumers try to cut down on their spending in an already challenging economic environment, higher levels of expenditure are still evident, with reports attributing a lack of self control over spending behaviour as a major culprit. Therefore, consumer spending self-control (CSSC), which regulates spending thoughts and behaviour, served as the primary focus of this study. Consumers differ in terms of their CSSC, with some being better able to control their spending than others, thus influencing their well-being. Determining which factors influence people’s CSSC, and the resulting impact on well-being, prompt the need to explore this relationship further. The self-determination theory (SDT), which is a theory of human motivation, provided the theoretical underpinning for this study and specifically incorporated psychological needs and well-being as SDT elements. The theory examines the interaction between extrinsic forces, intrinsic motivations as well as the way people regulate their motives, emotions and impulses, with the ultimate aim of influencing well-being. Putting it into context for this study, SDT provides the theoretical foundation for understanding how psychological needs, as well as extrinsic and intrinsic sources, influence people’s regulatory behaviour (i.e., CSSC in this study), and the resulting influence on people’s well-being. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to explore the role of CSSC in the relationship between psychological needs and well being. Three secondary research objectives were set and addressed in article format in three separate chapters. The first secondary objective explored the moderating effect of aspirational goals on the relationship between psychological needs and CSSC. The second secondary objective studied the roles of CSSC and financial vulnerability in the relationship between psychological needs and financial well-being. The third secondary objective investigated the roles of financial well-being and relative deprivation in the relationship between CSSC and life satisfaction. This descriptive, cross sectional study collected data using an online self-administered questionnaire distributed to South Africans who were credit active, 18 years or older, either permanently employed or self-employed. Respondents who adhered to these specific boundary conditions were sourced via a Qualtrics online paid-for consumer panel. Although 628 respondents participated in the study, a total of 608 respondents were subject to analysis. Mplus Version 8.3 was used for structural equation modelling, and Hayes’ Process Macro for SPSS Version 3.5 was used for testing moderation and mediation effects. The results showed that psychological need satisfaction was positively associated with CSSC and financial well-being. CSSC also had a partial, complementary mediating effect on the relationship between psychological need satisfaction and financial well-being. Although the relationships between psychological need frustration and CSSC, and psychological need frustration and financial well-being did not show significance, CSSC had a partial, complementary mediating effect on the relationship between psychological need frustration and financial well-being. Furthermore, although CSSC was not significantly related to life satisfaction, financial well-being was partly responsible for the relationship between CSSC and life satisfaction. Finally, relative deprivation had a moderating effect on the relationship between financial well-being and life satisfaction, with high levels of relative deprivation having a stronger moderating effect on the relationship between financial well-being and life satisfaction. The main theoretical contribution of this study is the advancement of CSSC literature, with CSSC acting in a regulating capacity in the SDT context. Based on the study results, several practical recommendations have been suggested. These include using psychological need satisfaction/frustration as segmentation bases, developing product/service offerings to assist consumers with CSSC and designing marketing communication messages emphasising that CSSC contributes to greater financial well-being and overall life satisfaction. Inspired by the transformative service research (TSR) movement, which encourages service organisations to explore ways in which the well-being of people can be improved, this study strived to provide a better understanding of how CSSC can advance people’s well-being. Recognising that many South Africans struggle to control their spending behaviour, financial institutions, retailers and other service organisations can use the insight obtained from this study to develop products/services to assist people with controlling their spending behaviour, subsequently improving their financial well-being and overall life satisfaction.
The role of reference groups as credible sources in African women’s natural hair care consumption behaviour
(University of Pretoria, 2023) Van der Westhuizen, Liezl-Marie; Ndoro, Tinashe; batandam@gmail.com; Batandwa, Simelane Lerato
The proliferation of information on Black women’s natural hair care products globally and in South Africa has created the need for a better understanding of the role of reference groups’ source credibility in Black African women’s natural hair care consumption behaviour. Reference groups’ source credibility has long been studied by consumer researchers and marketing practitioners because credible sources of information are important in impacting consumer behaviour. Source credibility has been defined in several ways in the literature; this study focuses on attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness as a reference group’s source credibility subdimensions. The primary objective of this study was to determine the effect of reference groups as credible sources on Black African women’s natural hair care consumption behaviour. The secondary objectives were (1) to investigate the relationship between a social media influencer’s (SMI’s) source credibility and purchase intentions towards natural hair care products; (2) to investigate the moderating role of an SMI’s source credibility on the relationship between involvement and purchase intentions towards natural hair care products; and (3) to examine the effects of normative (female family member - FFM) and comparative (SMI) reference groups’ source credibility and their impact on purchase intentions towards natural hair care products. The study used three social theories: social identity theory, social cognitive theory, and social influence theory. The three social theories provided a social theoretical lens that explained the effect of the social environment on an individual’s cognitive, affective, and evaluative behaviours. The study used a deductive approach to assess the hypotheses generated from the literature. The primary data was collected using online, self-administered questionnaires from the target population – specifically, Black African women with natural hair (that is, not chemically straightened hair). Convenience sampling was done through a consumer panel of a third-party service provider. In line with the third secondary objective of the study, one group of respondents received a questionnaire with a scenario about an FFM as their reference group, while the other group of respondents received a scenario with an SMI as their reference group. There were 306 usable responses from the FFM questionnaire and 305 usable responses from the SMI scenario questionnaire. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to assess the hypothesised relationships in the study. The results indicated that the SMI’s attractiveness did positively influence the purchase intentions of Black African women towards natural hair care products recommended by the SMI with natural hair. The findings of this study also revealed that sense of belonging with the SMI with natural hair, in the form of social identification and perceived similarity, was not a cause of the effect of SMI source credibility on purchase intentions. Second, the SMI’s source credibility interacted with affective involvement to influence purchase intentions. The findings also revealed that affective involvement with natural hair care products mediated product involvement with natural hair care products and purchase intentions towards natural hair care products. Third, the effects of the FFM’s and the SMI’s expertise and trustworthiness on purchase intentions towards natural hair care products were not evident. Furthermore, the study’s findings revealed that attitudes towards natural hair care products were a mechanism for the effect of SMI expertise, FFM trustworthiness, and SMI trustworthiness on purchase intentions towards natural hair care products. This study contributes towards a better understanding of reference groups’ source credibility and its role in Black African women’s consumption behaviour towards natural hair care products. The study has made several theoretical contributions to the reference groups and source credibility literature on the role of reference groups’ source credibility as antecedents and moderators. Furthermore, the study has provided insights into the effects of normative reference groups’ and comparative reference groups’ source credibility. The study provides marketing practitioners of Black African women’s natural hair care products with recommendations on using credible reference groups to drive purchase intentions towards natural hair care products. The recommendations include a) creating natural hair care communities using reference groups with which consumers resonate and connect; b) using credible reference groups to get consumers to feel emotionally involved with natural hair care products in order to drive purchase intentions; and c) using different reference group source credibility subdimensions during the consumer journey. Despite methodological limitations, such as its cross-sectional design, this study contributes theoretically and practically to providing a better understanding of the role of reference groups as credible sources in Black African women’s natural hair care consumption behaviour. This study thus allows for informed marketing strategies to be adopted by marketing practitioners in the Black African women’s natural hair care industry.
Establishing the antecedents and outcomes of service climate
(University of Pretoria, 2021-07) Mostert, P.G. (Pierre); theuns.kotze@up.ac.za; Kotze, Theuns G.
The aim of this article-based thesis was to develop and test four structural models of the antecedents and outcomes of service climate on data collected from frontline employees, store managers, and customers nested in 70 stores of a South African retailer of home improvement products. The first article explored the extent to which frontline employees’ perceptions of six service-oriented high-performance work practices (SO-HPWPs) predict their work engagement and psychological service climate perceptions at an individual level of analysis. The results showed that service-oriented training predicted both psychological service climate and work engagement, while staffing and involvement also predicted service climate. The second article compared two rival store-level structural models of the interrelationships between service-oriented high performance work systems (SO-HPWS), collective work engagement, and service climate as predictors of frontline employees’ collective in-role and extra-role service performance. The findings supported the climate-centric model in which service climate functions as a direct antecedent of collective in-role and extra-role service performance. The third article tested an expanded store-level structural model in which SO-HPWS and collective work engagement predict service climate, which, in turn, predicts customer satisfaction and, ultimately, also store loyalty. This model fitted the data well, confirming that service climate is a key mediator that links internal organizational variables (i.e., SO-HPWSs and collective work engagement) to important customer responses (i.e., overall customer satisfaction and store loyalty). Surprisingly, the relationships between frontline employees’ collective in-role and extra-role service performance and customer satisfaction were not statistically significant. This may be due to a range restriction in the customer satisfaction ratings.
Modelling the uptake of visitor research in protected area visitor management
(University of Pretoria, 2020) Du Preez, Elizabeth; liandi.slabbert@gmail.com; Slabbert, Liandi Magdalena
Protected areas are characterised as environments of constant change, complexity and uncertain conditions. Managers have to achieve biodiversity objectives against a backdrop of great expectations from society. Pressured to deliver quality visitor experiences and generate revenues to fund conservation, they simultaneously face the charge of minimising negative economic, environmental and social impacts from tourism. Effective protected area management should be led by evidence-based decision-making, particularly in areas that require substantial levels of skills and expertise, such as visitor management. The expansion of tourism research worldwide is significant in terms of the number, sources and communication of research outputs. Through the past two decades, scholars have acknowledged the increasing importance of information on visitors’ characteristics, perceptions and behaviours; visitor use patterns; and the benefits and impacts of visitation to protected areas. Yet, there is growing concern that research remains underutilised by policymakers and practitioners, despite the applied nature of the field. Discrepancies and inefficiencies between the production and utilisation of research have been noted both in a broader tourism context and in protected area settings, pointing towards a research-practice divide. Despite its critical importance, it is not clear to what extent the body of visitor research has helped protected area managers identify strategies to deal with visitor management challenges. We know little about its uptake in management areas, current utilisation levels, and the factors that influence its absorption into policy and practice. The purpose of this thesis is to address these knowledge gaps. This study adopts a mixed-methods research approach. The first part of the thesis describes and delineates two fundamental constructs in protected area tourism research. These include the components of visitor research and the application areas where research is taken up. The results of a systematic quantitative literature review structurally and geographically portray the nature of the body of knowledge on visitor research produced in protected areas during the years 2014 through 2018. Six categories of visitor research are confirmed, using national parks as case studies. There were four categories often produced: socio-demographic attributes; psychographic attributes; use patterns and behaviour; and experience outcomes. The areas of application, as recommended by the authors of these studies, were evaluated, providing a global perspective of the usability of visitor research in protected areas. Nine visitor management application areas emerged, encompassed in three broader management categories: strategic; tactical and operational; and monitoring and evaluation. The majority of visitor research produced in national parks lead to recommendations for applications in management activities that exhibit a strong visitor interface. These include enhancing the visitor experience; managing visitor use and visitor impacts; improving visitor interpretation and communication; and monitoring and evaluating social and environmental conditions. Even though most studies identified at least one management application area, some areas appeared to be underserved by the current body of knowledge. The findings attest to the importance of accommodating a diverse range of visitor research types for evidence-based decision-making in the value-laden process of managing visitors in protected areas. Apart from the enhanced understanding of the constructs themselves, this thesis also explores linkages between them. The analysis also considered the conceptual, instrumental and symbolic use of visitor research. Academic researchers in outdoor recreation do adapt and embrace the demand for management research. Researchers frequently make recommendations towards instrumental use of knowledge and often suggest more than one area of application. Embedded research capacity further stimulates recommendations towards management applications. That said, recommendations do not automatically translate into implementation. Knowledge utilisation is influenced by many other factors apart from the provision of information. The thesis explores literature to identify the overarching theoretical explanations and influential individual factors of knowledge utilisation. It also examines the measurement of utilisation. In the second part of the study, the researcher conducted a Delphi survey among a sample of 26 experts from various countries and continents, each highly knowledgeable in protected area visitor research. The main objectives were to determine experts’ views on the current application of visitor research in protected areas and identify factors that influence its uptake. The results revealed five dimensions of influencers connecting to six theoretical explanations of knowledge utilisation. The third part of the study applied these findings to develop and test a conceptual model through structural equation modelling (SEM). For this purpose, the researcher utilised data obtained from a survey of 252 researchers working with protected areas. This part of the study quantifies the research-practice gap of the body of visitor research collected in PAs by studying the movement of knowledge through the different utilisation stages. The results confirm other authors’ hypotheses of sub-optimal use of visitor research in practice. Large percentages of respondents reached the utilisation stages of reference, effort, influence and application only some of the times. Few researchers reported that their results usually influenced management decisions. The SEM analysis outcomes lead to a novel explanation for the utilisation of visitor research in the context of protected area visitor management. It also reaffirms the importance of the organisational interest and interaction explanations, as widely cited in knowledge utilisation literature. The role of absorptive capacity towards strengthening knowledge utilisation in protected areas is confirmed. The results identify two significant factors that promote better utilisation of visitor research, namely engagement between researchers and practitioners and the skills, capacity and awareness of practitioners to interpret and apply visitor research effectively. The study outcomes strengthen our understanding of the contribution that both researchers and their research make towards policy transformation in protected area visitor management. Relationship-focussed engagement, where researchers and end-users understand each other’s needs and collaborate to achieve common goals, is required to generate more policy-relevant research. Resultantly, more appropriate research questions are formulated, increasing the feasibility of applied research methods and a greater likelihood of practitioners implementing the recommendations. Ongoing engagement also increases the absorptive capacity of practitioners. The study concludes with recommendations proposed to both protected areas and research communities for improving visitor research utilisation. The final chapter identifies a set of significant remaining knowledge gaps that present possibilities for future research.
The role of gender in brand anthropomorphism of brand spokes-characters
(University of Pretoria, 2020-07) Van der Westhuizen, Liezl-Marie; Wiese, Melanie; jadeverbeek88@gmail.com; Verbeek, Jade
Brand anthropomorphism, which refers to brands being perceived as having human-like qualities, has been found to yield several brand benefits, two of which are brand loyalty and commitment and a willingness to spread positive word-of-mouth. These benefits make it a valuable consideration in the marketing domain. However, like other sets of beliefs, not all anthropomorphic beliefs have the same strength: they can range along a continuum from strongly held to weakly held anthropomorphic beliefs, thus affecting the degree to which they yield brand benefits. Yet the literature to date often appears to have explored this variance by comparing the anthropomorphic beliefs of personified non-human stimuli (which are mostly gender-neutral) with those of non-personified stimuli, or by exploring individuals’ general propensity to anthropomorphise. However, based on the dehumanisation literature, the gender of human beings has been found to play a role in the degree to which human beings are denied humanness. It can be anticipated, therefore, that the perceived gender of non-human stimuli is also likely to play a role in the degree to which they are attributed humanness. Although research on brand anthropomorphism has increased in recent years, little is known about the variance in the actual occurrence of the brand anthropomorphism of specific non-human brand stimuli, such as brand spokes-characters, using a gendered lens. The primary purpose of this study, therefore, is to explore the role of gender in the brand anthropomorphism of brand spokes-characters in an NPO context. Since brand anthropomorphism has been found to yield several brand benefits, especially in the profit sector, it may also be a viable strategy for NPOs to consider as they strive to increase patronage in a competitive landscape. So this warrants further exploration of brand anthropomorphism in this context. Data was collected from participants and respondents residing in South Africa who were over the age of 18 years. Since gender played a pivotal role in this study, equal gender quotas were set for these participants and respondents. The data was collected using a multi-method approach to address the primary purpose of this study, in three phases. First, unstructured interviews were conducted to explore the design of personified and gendered brand spokes-character stimuli. Second, based on the feedback from the unstructured interviews, the brand spokes-character stimuli were revised and were subsequently used as the stimuli in a focus group, in order to probe discussions and to unearth deeper meanings associated with these personified and gendered stimuli. Third, a survey questionnaire administered via an online panel was conducted to explore the role of gender in brand anthropomorphism in an NPO context. Three scenarios were created, in which only the gender (female, gender-neutral, or male) of the brand spokes-character stimulus used in each changed. A total of 600 respondents were recruited from a convenience sample, in which 200 respondents were respectively exposed to one of the three scenarios. This study’s main findings arising from multiple analysis of variance (ANOVAs), multi-group moderation structural equation modelling (SEM), and mediation, were four-fold. First, this study uncovered the complexities involved in designing gendered and personified non-human brand stimuli. The brand spokes-characters’ gender was acknowledged more often than not, and the gendered brand spokes-characters appeared to play a role in their brand anthropomorphism and in their perceived suitability for NPOs. A suggestion to marketers, therefore, is to elicit brand anthropomorphism by endowing brand stimuli not only with observable biological cues, but also with more social cues, such as gender cues (e.g., clothing) in order to yield possible greater brand benefits. Second, on the role of brand spokes-characters’ acknowledged gender in brand anthropomorphism, it was found that there were no statistically significant differences in brand anthropomorphism based on the brand spokes-characters’ acknowledged gender. Marketers are therefore encouraged to elicit brand anthropomorphism to a greater degree by considering the use of more realistic (e.g., 3D design) brand stimuli that are not static in design, but that are able rather to move. Third, even though there were no statistically significant differences in the brand anthropomorphism of the brand spokes-characters, based on the delimitation of the human-like qualities constituting brand anthropomorphism in this study, there were significant differences in these characters’ other perceived unobservable human-like qualities, based on their acknowledged gender. These included the gender dimensions of brand personality (i.e., masculine and feminine brand personalities), and two of the three dimensions of source credibility (i.e., expertise and attractiveness). These results indicated that brand spokes-characters’ acknowledged gender does appear to play a role in the perceptions that they have unobservable human-like qualities, such as a feminine brand personality and/or expertise. According to the definition, such perceived unobservable human-like qualities could essentially also constitute anthropomorphism. Marketers are encouraged, therefore, to endow brand stimuli with either observable (e.g., a face) or unobservable (e.g., a voice) human-like attributes, as these are likely to elicit perceptions that such stimuli have unobservable human-like qualities (e.g., expertise). Fourth, the findings of this study indicated that the brand anthropomorphism of brand spokes-characters has an influence on brand affect, intention to donate, and donation behaviour, with brand affect and intention to donate playing a mediating role, and potential donors’ gender playing a moderating role in most of these direct relationships. Males were found to be more strongly persuaded to engage in prosocial behaviour by the brand anthropomorphism of the brand spokes-characters, while females were persuaded more by the brand affect toward these characters. One of the recommendations to marketers or managers of NPOs, therefore, is to consider carefully the gender of potential donors when communicating with them to elicit support. Theoretically, this study extends the existing literature about brand anthropomorphism by using a gendered lens. Specifically, additional insight into the variance of the actual occurrence of brand anthropomorphism, using a gendered lens, is offered. In addition, one of the main overall managerial contributions of this study is that it highlights the importance of marketers endowing brand stimuli with observable (e.g., human-like female facial features) or unobservable gender cues (e.g., an audible human-like female voice). This is likely to enhance brand perceptions and ultimately lead to favourable intentions and behaviour toward the brand as a result. However, like all social science research, this study is not without its limitations. Among the several limitations highlighted in the study, one of them is that it focuses on the role of only one demographic variable in brand anthropomorphism – namely, gender. A recommendation for future research, therefore, is to consider exploring the role of other demographic variables such as cultural groups, which has been found to play an important role in the effectiveness of brand personification strategies; or education level, which has been found to influence how gender roles are perceived. The consideration of other demographic variables may provide deeper insight into brand anthropomorphism and its effectiveness that may not have been uncovered in this study.
Establishing the antecedents and outcomes of a value creation strategy in business banking
(University of Pretoria, 2018) Mostert, P.G. (Pierre); mariette.zietsman@gmail.com; Zietsman, Mariette Louise
Value is considered the core of business-to-business marketing, and creating superior value from the customers’ perspective is key to gaining and maintaining a differentiating advantage in an increasingly competitive and price-sensitive business environment. The quest for differentiation has led to both business managers and researchers paying increasing attention to understanding the factors that shape business customers’ perception of value, as well as perceived value’s ensuing influence on long-term business relationships. Despite the growing interest in the concept of customer value creation in most business-to-business industries, the business banking industry seems to be lagging behind. In fact, most of the largest banks in the world (e.g., China Construction Bank, HSBC, Deutsche Bank, Barclays) only refer in their mission statements to value creation for the shareholder, while most banks fail to mention customer value at all. While scholarly articles on customer value have increased within the retail banking industry over the last few years, research specifically within the business banking industry remains limited. In order to move banks away from a view of value as a way to optimise short-term financial performance, the purpose of this study is to establish the antecedents and outcomes of business banking customers’ perceptions of value with the aim of developing a value creation strategy. The study accordingly develops and tests a conceptual model that depicts a value creation strategy in business banking. This model includes ‘perceived value’ as its central constituent, along with antecedent- and outcome-related variables. In this research, ‘antecedents’ relate to price fairness, perceived price, and service quality, while ‘outcomes’ relate to customer satisfaction and customer loyalty. This research differs from previous research, however, in that it incorporates the multidimensionality of both satisfaction and loyalty to establish how ultimately to secure future revenue through a value offering. Furthermore, this research differs from other research studies in that it was conducted among micro-enterprises – that is, businesses that employ only one to two people – which is an under-researched target group in the value-satisfaction-loyalty literature. Considering the primary objective set for this study – that is, to establish the antecedents and outcomes of perceived value in business banking – a descriptive research design was employed, and an online, self-administered survey was used to collect primary data from the target population, which was business banking customers who employed only one to two people. The sample of micro-enterprises was drawn through convenience sampling (a non-probability sampling method) from a business customer database provided by one of the largest banks in South Africa. The final analysed sample consisted of 381 micro-enterprises. Using confirmatory factor analysis to assess the validity of the research model and structural equation modelling to test the hypothesised relationships, the results of the study reveal that price fairness is an important construct to consider in a value creation strategy, as enhanced perceptions of price fairness among micro-enterprises were found to influence both their perceived price and service quality, which in turn influenced micro-enterprises’ perception of value. In fact, perceived price and service quality were established as mediators between price fairness and perceived value in service encounters between micro-enterprises and their banks. The results further reveal that economic satisfaction and non-economic satisfaction are direct outcomes of micro-enterprises’ perceived value, and that attitudinal and behavioural loyalty are indirect outcomes. The findings indicate that while perceived value had the strongest influence on economic satisfaction, economic satisfaction, in turn, did not lead to repurchase intentions (behavioural loyalty). Rather, non-economic satisfaction mediated the relationship between economic satisfaction and behavioural loyalty, indicating the importance of building personal connections and offering an enjoyable service experience in order to drive loyalty behaviours. This research contributes to theory by being the first to investigate empirically the interrelationships between price fairness, perceived price, service quality, perceived value, economic satisfaction, non-economic satisfaction, attitudinal loyalty, and behavioural loyalty under micro-enterprise business customers. Also, the separation of economic and non-economic satisfaction, and of attitudinal and behavioural loyalty, provides theoretical and managerial insights into how to structure a value creation strategy in the business banking industry to ensure that value is translated into actual purchasing behaviour, resulting in increased revenues and profits for business banks. By specifically conducting this research among micro-enterprises in a developing country that depend on banks for access to finance on competitive terms for their business survival and expansion opportunities, this research further contributes to practice by providing banks with recommendations that, if followed, would ensure that a profitable customer base is retained that can contribute to economic growth and job creation. While the research made several important contributions to both theory and practice, statistically the findings cannot be generalised beyond the scope of this study – namely, micro-enterprises as business customers of South African banks. Future research should address this limitation, and address the other limitations reported in the study. Doing so could make for exciting research possibilities.
The influence of perceived brand personality of social media on users' attitude motivations and behaviour
(University of Pretoria, 2018) Maree, Tania; u14326028@tuks.co.za; Mutsikiwa, Munyaradzi
The study examines the effect of the users’ perceived brand personality (PBP) of social media (Facebook, LinkedIn and YouTube) on attitude, motivation, behavioural intent, and behaviour. The study applies Aaker’s (1997) brand personality scale (BPS) to social media brands to test the extent to which it is applicable to social media brands, to examine the underlying structure of the PBP of social media brands and tests the hypothesised model for the interrelationship between the PBP of social media and attitude, motivation, behavioural intent, and behaviour. A quantitative approach was employed, where data was collected using an online survey. A sample of 380 respondents per platform was used, giving a total of 1140 respondents for the study. Exploratory factor analyses were done to examine the underlying structure of the PBP of social media brands. Structural equation modelling was used to assess the fit of the hypothesised model and subsequent relationships between the constructs. A two-factor solution for the brand personality of social media (Facebook, LinkedIn and YouTube) was extracted. The brand personality of Facebook is represented by two traits: excitement and sincerity. The Facebook model fit indices are as follows: __2 = 1298.658; d.__ = 510; p = .000; NFI = .846; IFI = .901; TLI = .890; CFI = 900, RMSEA = 0.066 PCLOSE (.000) The brand personality of LinkedIn is represented by two traits: competence and sincerity. The LinkedIn model fit indices were attained at: at: __2 = 1124.7067; d.__ = 478; p = .000; RMSEA = 0.0601; NFI = .872; IFI = .922; TLI = .914; CFI = 922; RMSEA = 0.0601 PCLOSE (.000). The brand personality of YouTube is represented by two traits: excitement and sincerity. The YouTube model fit indices were attained at: __2 = 1133.485, d.__ = 510; p-value = .000, NFI = .844, IFI = .908, TLI = .898, CFI = .907, and RMSEA = .060 (PCLOSE = 0.000). The results of the hypothesis tests revealed that H1: which states that there is a significant positive relationship between PBP of social media and users’ attitude and H2: which indicates a significant positive relationship between PBP of social media and motivation were partially supported for the three social media platforms (Facebook, LinkedIn, and YouTube). H3: which states that there is a significant positive relationship between users’ attitude and behavioural intent was supported for Facebook and LinkedIn and was not supported for YouTube. H4: which states that there is a significant positive relationship between users’ attitude and behaviour was not supported for the three social media platforms. H5: which states that there is a significant relationship between users’ motivation and behaviour was partially supported for Facebook and was supported for LinkedIn and YouTube. H6: which states that there is a significant positive relationship between users’ motivation and behaviour was partially supported for Facebook and not supported for LinkedIn and YouTube. The last hypothesis H7: which states that there is a significant positive relationship between behavioural intent and behaviour was not supported for the three platforms.
Consumers' adoption and continuance intention to use mobile payment services
(University of Pretoria, 2018) Wiese, Melanie; humbani@gmail.com; Humbani, Michael
The African continent continues to register an increase in the uptake of smartphones and other personal digital assistants, all of which are capable of making mobile payments. Consequently, mobile payment service providers continue to hold optimistic views about the future of mobile payments. Despite the proliferation of smartphone adoption in African countries, little is known about the factors that influence the adoption and continued use of the novel technology such as mobile payment services, particularly in developing countries such as South Africa. Although there are growing research streams in this regard, there have been conflicting reports, inconsistencies and contradictions in previous research findings that need to be explained. In particular, there is growing research examining factors that predict the adoption and continuance intention to use new technologies such as mobile payment services. These studies are predominantly Western-based. Not much research has been extended to the African continent to determine how generalisable the results are to a wider context. Due to cultural, social and economic differences, Western theories may not be equally applicable in developing countries. This calls for more research to validate and continuously update and streamline Western theories in developing countries. The primary purpose of this study is to determine the predictors of the adoption and continuance intention to use mobile payment services. The study uses a three-step approach. First, the study tests the ability of the modified technology readiness index (TRI) to predict adoption, and also tests the moderating effect of gender on the predictors of the adoption of mobile payment services. Second, the study tests the applicability and ability of the extended expectation-confirmation model, in the context of information technology (E-ECM-IT), to predict continuance intention to use mobile payment services. The moderating effect of gender on the predictors of continuance intention is also examined. After the validation of the two models, a synthesised model of the TRI and the E-ECM-IT is proposed to predict both adoption and continuance intention in a single study – a novel perspective not covered in depth thus far in existing research. Data were collected from a convenience sample by using an online South African consumer panel of an international research firm that was contracted to collect data for analysis. A total of 416 respondents were sampled, comprising consumers aged 18 years and older who owned a credit card and who had downloaded a mobile payment application (‘app’) at the time of the survey. The sampling units were taken from all nine provinces of South Africa. A self-administered online questionnaire with seven-point Likert scales was used to obtain information pertaining to their adoption and continuance intention to use mobile payment services. First, the study used multiple regression analysis to test the hypotheses set to measure adoption of mobile payment services, grounded in the modified TRI, and to examine the moderating effect of gender on the predictors. Second, a partial least squares-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) approach was employed to predict continuance intention, in which the moderating effect of gender was also examined. Third, a structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to validate the proposed integrated model, measuring both adoption and continuance intention. This study found the main adoption drivers to be convenience and compatibility. The key barriers to adoption include insecurity, perceived cost, and perceived risk. Contrary to previous reports, this study found that optimism, innovativeness and discomfort are not significant predictors of the adoption of mobile payment services. The results of the regression analysis show that the drivers of mobile payment services are more important to consumers than inhibitors in influencing adoption. It is therefore recommended that service providers focus more on the convenience and compatibility of mobile payments to enhance adoption levels. Of the eight predictors tested in this study, the results reveal that gender only moderates the effect of convenience on the adoption of mobile payment services. With regard to continuance intention, the majority of the hypothesised paths were confirmed except one: the relationship between perceived ease of use and continuance intention. Although not expected in this study, this result corroborates findings of other previous studies in the literature that suggest that the impact of ease of use on continuance intention to use any new technology is lessened as users gain more experience in using that technology. The results suggest that the expectation confirmation model in the context of information technology (ECM-IT) could be an alternative model to the E-ECM-IT to predict continuance. This is because the ECM-IT does not include perceived ease of use as a post-adoption antecedent to predict continuance intention. Thus, the results underscore the importance of re-testing and validating Western models in the African context. Satisfaction remains the most significant predictor of continuance intention. Therefore, service providers must focus more on customer satisfaction by avoiding transaction and billing errors or security breaches, among other factors, to enhance continued use. The moderating effect of gender on predictors of continuance intention was also examined, and results show that gender does not play a significant moderating role.
The effect of personal cultural orientations on consumer decision-making styles through consumer involvement
(University of Pretoria, 2017) Jordaan, Yolanda; Van Heerden, Gene; jeffi@mweb.co.za; Isaacson, Jeff Ian
Every individual is a consumer who purchases goods and services on a regular basis. Indeed, from a very young age, individuals are involved in consumer behaviour as an integral part of their everyday lives. From searching for, purchasing and consuming, through to evaluating and disposing of goods and services, consumer behaviour affects nearly every aspect of an individual's life. Globalisation has brought about a renewed interest in the influence of culture on consumer behaviour. Culture is viewed as the collective programming of the hands, heart and mind which distinguishes individuals or groups of individuals from each other and encompasses not only beliefs, attitudes and skills but, most importantly, a system of values. It affects all aspects of human existence within societies. Its influence is particularly apparent when considering the effect of national culture on decision-making. The influence is, however, not just limited to the national level but extends to the individual level as well. A knowledge gap currently exists in terms of understanding the relationship between individual-level culture and decision-making. Besides culture, consumer involvement also influences consumer behaviour. Considered to have a causal effect with a number of related consequences on the purchase and communication behaviours of individuals, it influences the extent or complexity of decision-making processes. However, despite the growing importance of consumer involvement as a construct that explains consumer behaviour, a further knowledge gap exists in that the relationship between individual-level culture and decision-making through consumer involvement has not been thoroughly researched. The conceptual framework adopted for the purpose of this study is based on the Antecedents-Involvement-Consequences (A-I-C) model described by Flynn and Goldsmith (1993). This model includes involvement as its central component, along with two sets of related variables, namely antecedents and consequences. In terms of this research, antecedents relates to two dimensions of national culture, namely Uncertainty Avoidance – concerns the extent to which individuals feel threatened by, and try to avoid, uncertainty – and Masculinity/Femininity – relates to the affect of biological differences on the emotional and social roles of individuals. These national culture antecedents were reconceptualised at the individual-level as Risk Aversion – concerns the reluctance of individuals to assume risk – and Ambiguity Intolerance – relates to the extent to which individuals are able to tolerate uncertainty – and as Masculinity – concerns the dominance of masculine values – and Gender Equality – relates to the extent to which the genders are perceived as being equal, respectively. Further, involvement distinguishes between different types of Consumer Involvement, both cognitive, namely Risk Involvement – concerns product risk and the relative importance or probability of this risk – and Normative Involvement – relates to the importance of a product to an individual's values – and affective, namely Situational Involvement – concerns the purchase or use of a product in a particular situation – and Enduring Involvement – relates to the importance of a product to an individual's values across all and not just specific situations. Finally, the consequences measured in this study relate to two styles of consumer decision-making associated with choosing brands, namely Brand Loyalty – an orientation towards consistently choosing the same brands – and Brand Consciousness – an orientation towards buying expensive, well-known brands. A descriptive research design was employed, consistent with the postpositivism research paradigm and deductive research adopted for the purpose of this study. The survey method entailed using online self-administered questionnaires to collect primary data. The target population encompassed adults, 21 years and older, who spoke English as either a first or second language, who resided in South Africa, and who were responsible for purchasing their own clothing. The sampling frame was an online panel which leveraged third-party applications and websites to target respondents. A final sample of 814 respondents was obtained. In addition to the analysis of descriptive data, the results of the survey research were analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling. It is evident from the findings of the study that firstly, Consumer Involvement does not fulfil a role in the relationship between Uncertainty Avoidance, measured at the individual-level by Risk Aversion and Ambiguity Intolerance, and Brand Loyalty and Brand Consciousness. Indeed, the findings indicate that there is only a direct relationship between Risk Aversion and Brand Loyalty. Marketers should, therefore, with regard to their messaging, emphasise the mitigation of risk in terms of those product attributes that are important to risk averse consumers.
The role of the sales process at trade shows
(University of Pretoria, 2016) Wiese, Melanie; gapdrotsky@gmail.com; Drotsky, Gert Antonie Petrus
Business-to-business (B2B) marketing is one of the most underestimated and under-researched fields in marketing. Due to the unique characteristics of B2B markets, the emphasis has always been on one-on-one communication between the seller and the buyer. This means that in the communication mix, elements such as personal selling and trade shows play an important role in the selling and marketing of a business product and the accompanying services. There is an indication that there will be a growth in the trade-show industry, as well as in B2B marketing. There is also an element of uncertainty on the role of personal selling, and more specifically, the sales process at trade shows. Previous studies focused on the general activities at trade shows; but none focused on the sales process that is interlinked with trade shows. Therefore, an explorative study was done to determine the role of the sales process at trade shows; so as to guide exhibitors on what to do when exhibiting. A number of studies (Godar & O`Conner, 2007; Gopalakrishna & Lilian, 1992 and Sharland & Balogh, 1996) pointed to the role that trade shows plays in the buying task and buying stages of attendees at trade shows. In these studies the findings indicated that trade shows do not play such an important role throughout the whole of the buying process of attendees. However, studies by Bresler (2009) and Keswell (2010) pointed to the importance of trade shows in South Africa. Smith, Gopalakrishna and Smith (1999) indicated that trade shows play a major role in attendees moving through the buying process and therefore relates to the faster completion of the sales process resulting in better personal selling efficiency. This study contributes to the before mentioned studies by indicating specific actions in the selling process this can help exhibitors to improve the buying process. The findings of this study can assist the trade show industry to provide guidelines for exhibitors. A multi-stage sample plan was followed; and a self-administered questionnaire was used to gather the data for the study from exhibitors at trade shows. To establish the factors of the stages of the sales process at trade shows, a Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation that is explorative in nature was done. A further investigation was done for the sales process on the differences regarding (a) salespeople versus non-salespeople; (b) the type of trade show and (c) the business operations of exhibitors were assessed by means of an ANOVA, t-test, and MANOVA. The findings depict the various factors that make up the different stages of the sales process during the pre- and at-show stage of a trade show. Firstly, the business actions of exhibitors were investigated that included a number of elements such as: trade-show marketing; written objectives; trade-show evaluation and plan, staff improvement, new product and non-financial success to name a few. Thereafter, the stages of sales process at trade shows were investigated. The first stage dealt with pre-show marketing activities used to attract attendees to the trade show indicated two factors: direct communication and promotional elements. The second stage on the at-show marketing activities used to attract attendees to the business exhibit stand at the trade show comprised two factors: trade-show sponsorship and promotional tools. The third stage deals with the sales presentation at a trade show; and it had four factors that were identified, namely: presentation methods; presentation actions; approach method and questions approach. The fourth stage dealt with objections experienced; and two factors were indentified: manifested objections, and latent objections. The fifth stage deals with dealing with objections; the factors identified included standard-objection solutions and product-objection solutions. The last stage dealt with the closing methods; and two factors were identified: typical closing and product closing. Differences were identified between sales and non-sales persons for "presentation methods", "presentation actions" and "question approach". All of these factors deal with actions during the sales presentation. Non-sales exhibit staff in many cases does not have the experience that sales persons of the business have, especially on how to communicate during the sales presentation. Sales staff will also be more aware of the different sales methods and how to use these methods in different sales situations. From the findings what is of concern is that both sales and non-sales staff indicate that they do not really make use of closing methods to close the sale. Regarding the type of trade shows (international, national or regional) there were no differences for pre-show marketing activities, at-show marketing activities, the sales presentation and closing method used for the stages of the sales process there were no differences. These findings are very interesting; since for elements, such as the marketing activities before and at the trade show, one would assume that different approaches would be applied. International trade shows would, for example, rely more on electronic and mass-promotional mix elements; since it is not possible for their sales staff to visit all the possible prospects. Concerning the business operations (sales of goods or service industry/professionals or construction/manufacturing or other) of exhibitors and how they implement the stages of the sales process there were no significant differences evident. That means that the operations of a business have no impact on the sales process at trade shows. The findings of this study also provides an encouraging outcome for trade show role players in that there are not major differences for sales versus non-sales persons, type of trade show or business operations of the exhibitors. This provides an opportunity for general sales guidelines to be developed to improve the effectiveness of the sales process. Furthermore, the training of exhibit staff can be done more effectively and efficiently since there are no specialised requirements. Trade show organisers will benefit since material developed can be standardised for all types of trade shows. This study provides an interesting starting point for future research to combine the findings of this study with other studies that focus on the procurement needs of attendees of trade shows, such as Brelser (2009) and Smith et al. (1999). One of the main contributions of this study is that it provides a comprehensive sales process for trade shows with insights into the various sub-stages. Finally, in Chapter 7 a comprehensive figure illustrates the interconnectedness between the various stages of the sale process with trade show activities and the attendees' decision-making buying process. With this holistic overview conceptualisation is provided on how the sales process can be integrated into the buying process and stages of a trade show. The identification of the different actions can be an invaluable tool for researchers that want to expand on/or link the sales process and buying process at trade shows.
The nature and value of recruitment and talent management analytics : a systematic literature review
(University of Pretoria, 2016) Schaap, Pieter; u10687956@tuks.co.za; van Niekerk, Roelien
Introduction: In the current rapidly changing world of work, organisations are investing increasingly in workforce planning. Throughout times, recruiting and retaining talented employees have been one of the most complex problems facing employers. Human Resource (HR) metrics and analytics is still a relatively untouched tool used by HR managers. However, HR practitioners are engaging in an era where recruitment and talent retention processes are becoming predictive and provide several benefits to both the employer and employee. By understanding how data can be used for insightful decisions that generate business results, HR professionals need to exploit the gap. Currently, they have the opportunity to utilise their extensive data sets by providing the organisation with the relevant and strategic analytics for informed decision-making. Research purpose: The purpose of the systematic literature review was to investigate the nature and value that metrics and analytics on recruitment and talent management add to organisations. Motivation for the study: Throughout history, people were considered as the most valuable assets in which an organisation can invest. However, HR failed to take responsibility for the programmes and initiatives which they developed and implemented. By developing a means to measure HR programmes and initiatives and assess the performance and development of employees, HR professionals will be able to demonstrate its effect on the business's 'bottom line'. Consequently, top management would then be more willing to invest money and time in HR-related activities. HR metrics and analytics will allow top management to make informed decisions on HR initiatives and programmes such as recruitment and talent management. In a volatile business environment HR departments need to prove the monetary value of the HR functions to top management. For HR analytics to be effective, it is vital that the organisation applies the correct metrics that is aligned with the overall business strategy and objectives. Research design, approach and method: For the purpose of the present study, a systematic literature review was conducted to determine the nature and value-add of recruitment and talent management analytics in an organisation. Main findings: The first objective was to determine the importance of recruitment and talent retention metrics and analytics. Results show that organisations currently struggle to recruit and retain talented employees, a factor that ultimately impacts the success of the organisation. The review provided evidence of organisations that realised the importance of recruitment and talent retention analytics by also using it to inform their human capital planning. The second objective assessed the use of metrics and analytics to manage recruitment and talent. The research indicated that organisations apply various recruitment and talent retention metrics in different ways and for diverse purposes. A possible reason may be that organisations have different data sets and also use these sets differently to develop HR-related metrics suited for the specific company. The third objective was to identify standards for metrics on recruitment and talent management. The research indicates that there is no systematic approach to evaluate recruitment and talent management. This is a topic for future research. The fourth and final objective investigated the role of recruitment and talent retention analytics in management's decision-making. Here the literature indicates that organisations have invested highly in HR analytics, and even appoint an analytics team within the company with the sole purpose of evaluating the organisation's data sets. This attest to the value management attaches to HR analytics as important contribution to the business's decision-making process, and ultimately the success of the organisation as a whole. Limitations/future research: The present research had to factor in several delimitations related to the context, constructs and theoretical perspectives of the study. The researcher firstly identified that the research context was limited to the Human Resources (HR) segment of organisations and business sector. Secondly, only HR-related analytics were used for the purpose of this study. The researcher searched, analysed and made assumptions about this research topic by consulting mainly recent (over the past 10 years) and authentic resources. Lastly, the assumptions made in the study are based on data the researcher incorporated from selected literature. Conclusion: It is evident from the findings that HR professionals began understanding the impact of recruitment and talent retention analytics on validating HR contributions to the organisation. Furthermore, it is clear that, on the other hand, management does acknowledge the importance and value that recruitment and talent retention analytics add to the organisation's 'bottom line'. This allows management to make insightful decisions, and ultimately retain a competitive edge in the market.
A comparison between switching intention and switching behaviour in the South African mobile telecommunication industry
(University of Pretoria, 2015) Jordaan, Yolanda; michelle.vandermerwe@up.ac.za; Van der Merwe, Michelle Caroline
Rapid growth in the mobile telecommunications industry has resulted in near-saturated markets and thus intense competition. Due to high new customer acquisition costs, mobile network operators (MNOs) provide attractive offers to competitors existing customers to encourage switching. Consequently, MNOs currently face accelerated switching rates, despite using contracts as a means of customer lock-in. Therefore preventing switching in this industry has become vital. The study develops and tests a conceptual switching intention model using switching intention data. Switching antecedents investigated are relational switching costs, perceived value and alternative attractiveness. Subsequently, actual switching behaviour data is compared to the conceptual switching intention model. Finally, the role of relationship characteristics in both switching contexts is investigated. Primary data was collected via an online self-administered survey using a cross-sectional online panel. A contract with a South African MNO was a prerequisite for survey participation. Parameter estimates were obtained using maximum likelihood (ML) in AMOS and bootstrapping was conducted to confirm the stability of the ML estimates. EQS was used to obtain robust ML indices. The switching intention model fit indices obtained were as follows: x^2/df = 6.004 (x^2 = 966.61; df = 161; p < 0.000); RMSEA = 0.070 [0.066; 0.074]; NNFI = 0.943; CFI = 0.952. In the switching behaviour context, the three antecedents explained only 12% of variance; whereas the same antecedents explained 52% of variance for switching intention. The results suggest that factors other than the antecedents investigated drive switching behaviour. Relationship depth weakly influenced switching intention, while the influence of relationship length and breadth was negligible. None of the relationship characteristics influenced switching behaviour. The strongest predictor of switching intention was alternative attractiveness. The relationship strength of the dependent variable and antecedent variables was stronger in the switching intention context than in the switching behaviour context. Findings suggest that switching intention and switching behaviour are intrinsically different. Moreover, customers may perceive an increase in their monthly bill as a reason to switch. However other factors may influence customers when their actual switching decision is made.
Cultural orientation service performance and customer satisfaction as antecedents of corporate reputation in the Tanzanian banking industry
(University of Pretoria, 2015) Strasheim, Arien; gfasha@yahoo.co.uk; Fasha, George Sinesius
The competitiveness of commercial banks is of vital importance for a developing country that is striving to enhance the standard of living of its citizens by ensuring an expansion of banking services. Several international banks have invested in Tanzania, and they have changed the competitive landscape for the local banks to implement change towards improved service delivery. Tanzania is therefore an appropriate research ground for examining the competitiveness of the banking industry by conducting a comparative analysis between foreign and local banks that are operating successfully in the country. The purpose of this study was to develop a model of service performance that is relevant for the Tanzanian banking industry, and a model is proposed that conceptualise service performance as two second-order constructs consisting of service innovation and service quality. The relationships between personal cultural orientation, service performance and customer satisfaction, and their effect on the corporate reputation were investigated with a view to examine the moderating role of the type of bank used by customers, on these relationships. This study used multiple group structural equation modelling to compare foreign and local banks in terms of personal cultural orientation, service performance and customer satisfaction as antecedents of customer based corporate reputation. Validity and reliability assessment as well as measurement invariance testing were performed on the measurement models used in the study. The sample comprised 380 customers, whom 196 use local banks and 184 use foreign banks. The moderating role of type of bank (local versus foreign) was investigated for the relationships between cultural orientation, service performance, customer satisfaction and corporate reputation. Two multiple group structural equation models were used to test for differences between local and foreign banks on the hypothesised relationships, in order to avoid complexity in the testing of moderation. For the first structural equation model, scales from previous studies were used to develop a service performance instrument that suited the realities of the banking industry in Tanzania, where the largely homogeneous population is geographically dispersed, and agriculture and subsistence farming are a considerable part of the economy. The service performance model included service quality and service innovation as second-order constructs. The means for both service quality and service innovation were significantly higher for foreign banks than for local banks. The first-order dimensions of service innovation were facilities for cash distribution, physical access, service access and innovativeness, whilst the first-order dimensions of service quality were tangibles, empathy and security. Measures for customer satisfaction and corporate reputation were adapted from the literature. At mean level, there were not significant differences between local and foreign banks’ customers in term of customer satisfaction or corporate reputation of their banks. Service quality was a very significant predictor of both customer satisfaction and corporate reputation for both local and foreign bank customers. The relationship between service innovation and corporate reputation was moderately significant and negative for both local and foreign banks. Customer satisfaction had a moderately significant positive relationship with corporate reputation. The relationships between service innovation, service quality, customer satisfaction and corporate reputation were not significantly different for both local and foreign banks. The second structural equation model investigated the relationships between cultural orientation, service innovation and service quality. Cultural orientation was measured with Sharma’s (2010) scale, and the dimensions consumer innovativeness, traditional values and prudence values were used in the model. Foreign bank customers had significantly higher mean values than local bank customers for consumer innovativeness and traditional values, but there was no significant difference between the two types of banks for prudence values. There were significant relationships between consumer innovativeness and the perceived service innovation of their banks for both local and foreign bank customers, with the relationship being significantly stronger for foreign bank customers. Traditional values and prudence had no significant relationship with perceptions of the service innovativeness of either group of banks. The three components of cultural orientation had the following relationships with service quality. Consumer innovativeness was not significantly related with service quality for local bank customers, and was weak, significant and negative for foreign bank customers. There was no significant relationship between traditional values and service quality for foreign banks’ customers, whereas for local banks’ customers the relationship was weak, significant and positive. Prudence was significantly and positively related to service quality for both local and foreign bank customers, and the relationship was significantly stronger in the case of foreign banks. This study suggests that both local and foreign banks are competitive banks within Tanzania and the differences in service performance between these two groups of banks can be attributed mainly to differences in the cultural orientation of the two groups of customers. It is therefore suggested that banks in Tanzania pay more attention to the personal cultural orientations of their customers in order to differentiate themselves and be more effective in serving their customers.
The determinants of South African consumers’ online shopping satisfaction
(University of Pretoria, 2014) Kotze, Theunis Johannes; Botha, Dawid H.
Internet penetration and access to the World Wide Web is growing at a rapid pace in South Africa. Progressively Internet users have become online consumers, buying books, music, insurance, electronics, furniture, groceries, jewellery, travel and other products and services online. The focus of this research was to identify the factors that make up the online shopping experience and to understand how these factors correlate with online shopping satisfaction in a South African context. Understanding the relationship between the online shopping experience elements and customer satisfaction with online purchases is essential to online retailers, as well as to traditional retailers looking to enter the environment of online sales. The online shopping experience consisted of the following six elements:  Usability  Trust  Interactivity  Aesthetics  Online customer service Marketing Ps The elements that make up the online shopping experience were conceptually linked to online customer satisfaction. An Internet-mediated survey was conducted through convenience sampling methods and with the additional help of a reputable research company a large sample was acquired. The results of an exploratory factor analysis proved that online customer service was too closely correlated to the other experience elements. Online customer service was, therefore, left out of the multiple regression analysis that followed. The results of the multiple regression analysis identified trust, the marketing Ps, usability and interactivity as statistically significant determinants of online shopping satisfaction. Trustworthiness showed the strongest positive relationship with online shopping satisfaction. Aesthetics proved not to be a statistically significant determinant of online shopping satisfaction. It is recommended that future research concentrates on further conceptualising the shopping experience elements. Increased knowledge and understanding of the various elements that make up an online shopping experience may prove valuable. The online shopping environment in South Africa is young and in a rapid growth stage. The implication for managers is to focus on trust and the marketing Ps as significant determinants of online shopping satisfaction in this environment. Security issues and traditional marketing elements (specifically price and promotions) should be the focus of online retailers in South Africa. The better online businesses understand the determinants of online customer satisfaction, the better they can present their retail websites to reach organisational goals.
An investigation of the purchasing of status brands and conspicuous consumption among students at a tertiary level
(University of Pretoria, 2006) Ehlers, Lene; McDonald, A
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Black consumers’ shopping patronage and perceptions of the Riverside Mall’s attractiveness
(University of Pretoria, 2014) Wiese, Melanie; North, Ernest J.; breytenbacha@tut.ac.za; Breytenbach, Annemarie
The shopping centre industry is booming and shopping centres are built and planned in areas where previously there were no formal shopping opportunities. The profile of the typical South African shopper or consumer has changed from the traditional white affluent consumer to a diverse mix of heterogeneous cultures and nationalities and saw exponential growth in the spending power of the black middle class consumer. The focus of the study was to investigate consumers’ shopping centre behaviours, with specific reference to the attractiveness of the shopping centre, travel distance, patronage frequency and transportation used. The primary objective of this study was to determine the perceptions of black consumers regarding the attractiveness of the Riverside Mall, a shopping centre in Nelspruit, the capital city in the Mpumalanga province of South Africa. Various secondary objectives investigating possible differences relating to demographic profiles and other shopping centre behaviours and the perceptions of the consumers regarding the attractiveness factors were also investigated. The secondary objectives also included grouping the individual attractiveness attributes into factors as well as assessing the ability of the attractiveness factors to predict the overall shopping centre attractiveness. A two-stage research design, also called pluralistic design, was used for this study. Phase one was a qualitative design consisting of focus groups and personal interviews; and stage two a quantitative design. A total of 400 black shoppers were interviewed using a selfadministered questionnaire that was distributed within the shopping centre during the intercept survey. The descriptive statistics are reported as well as regression analysis, factor analysis, ANOVA, Mann-Whitney U tests and Kruskal-Wallis tests results. Findings from the research indicated that respondents visit shopping centres on a regular basis for shopping, browsing and socialising. The respondents indicated that the shopping centre was overall attractive and the individual shopping centre attractiveness attributes were grouped into four factors after the factor analysis: entertainment and facilities, quality and atmospherics, convenience and way-finding and decor. No differences on the perceptions of attractiveness factors between male and female consumers could be found. The traditional view of male and females differing in their enjoyment of shopping or time spent in a shopping centre seem not be substantiated in this research but the results however confirm that due to several possible reasons, such as duel income families, men are more exposed to shopping and visiting shopping centres and as such display similar behaviour than females. The age group 25 - 40 years, indicated differences in their perception of the attractiveness factors. These shoppers are a distinctive and discerning group and their perceptions of shopping centre attractiveness are different from shoppers in other age groups. The regression analysis revealed that Factor 1 ‘Entertainment and Facilities’ had the biggest effect on the overall attractiveness of the shopping mall. The constant changes in consumer preferences and needs necessitate a constant reevaluation and updating of the retail offerings. The challenge will be to provide a unique and novel destination, where consumers can meet to satisfy their need for social interaction, whilst engaging in their shopping. It is recommended that shopping centre managers should conduct regular climate studies in their environments to enable them to identify problems and suggestions from the respondents. Various strategies to improve marketing, infrastructure, entertainment, providing variety as well as creating a sustainable competitive advantage was suggested. Recommendations for further research include the need to explore the possibility that the cultural influence might cause both male and female shoppers to experience shopping in a similar way.
South African females' willingness to pay for ethically framed personal care products
(University of Pretoria, 2014) Van Heerden, Gene; North, Ernest J.; ; Lynch, Anna-Mart
The study of consumer behaviour is a dynamic and longstanding challenge to continuously understand the factors which influence consumers’ buying behaviour. Though internal (for example attitude, motivation and learning) and external factors (marketing stimuli) are equally important, the focus of this study is on external influences and market trends. Consumer markets around the world have recently seen the increase of ethical products. Those products that are differentiated by their moral or sustainable values and attributes, for example environmentally friendly products or body lotions not tested on animals. The provision of these products is a result of organisations’ realisation that in order to increase their customer base, their values must be centred on doing good for the community as well as the environment and should be visible to consumers. For a number of organisations this means marketing the ethical values and attributes of the products they provide so that consumers will ultimately choose their products. However, in order to understand consumers’ willingness to pay for these products, marketers need to understand the price perceptions consumers have towards these products. The purpose of this study relates to this and aims to determine the influence that the marketing of ethically framed personal care products, as an external influence, has on consumers’ willingness to pay for these products. More specifically, this study aims to determine whether South African females are willing to pay more for ethically framed personal care products than for ordinary personal care products. This will be done by specifically assessing their reference, fair and reservation price perceptions.
Generational differences in South African consumers' brand equity perceptions
(University of Pretoria, 2014) Kotze, Theunis Johannes; mosupsln@unisa.ac.za; Mosupyoe, Sebilaro Sybil Lebogang Ntshole
South Africa has undergone profound political and social transformations since 1990. These changes influenced the perceptions of individuals in Generations X and Y. In South Africa, the members of Generation X experienced their formative years during the transitional years of South Africa’s young democracy during the 1990s, while the members of Generation Y were born during the last decade of apartheid. For the purpose of this study Generation X was classified as those consumers who were born in the period of 1961 to 1981, while Generation Y was born in the period of 1982 to 1994. Generation Y would recall the release of Nelson Mandela from prison and the political transition in the country. The study focused on generational cohorts instead of generations. Generational cohorts are distinct from generations as they are defined according to their transition from childhood to adulthood. A generation on the other hand is defined by its year of birth. This study investigated possible differences in the brand equity perceptions of South African consumers in Generations X and Y. It generated insights regarding generational differences in consumers’ perceptions of four specific brand equity dimensions, namely brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty. Equally important was a comprehensive understanding of how consumers in Generations X and Y differed with regard to the aforementioned four consumer-based brand equity (CBBE) dimensions when making a purchase decision regarding electronic consumer goods, particularly a television set. Consequently, this study extended the existing knowledge of consumer behaviour and CBBE by investigating pertinent perceptual differences between Generations X and Y. A mall intercept survey using a self-completion questionnaire was used to gather quantitative data from 223 respondents in Generations X and Y who purchased or were exposed to television sets. A demographic profile of the respondents who participated in the study indicates that 67 of the 114 respondents in Generation X (i.e., 53.2%) were males, compared to 59 of 108 respondents in Generation Y (i.e., 46.8%). The majority of respondents in both Generations X and Y had a diploma as their highest qualification. The Generation X sample contained a higher proportion of African respondents (i.e.,59.5%) compared to the Generation Y sample (i.e., 40.5%). The income profile suggested that there were distinct differences in terms of net monthly household income between respondents from the two generations. Serveral exploratory factor analysis (EFA) were conducted in which the Likert scale statements in question 3 to 6 (see Appendix A p.170-174) measuring different subdimensions of consumer-based brand equity dimensions were subjected to a principal components analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation. The results of the final EFA analysis involved 17 Likert scale items. The PCA revealed four factors (components). These components were brand associations in terms of product quality and value, brand awareness, brand loyalty and brand associations in terms of product manufacturer. Further statistical analysis was conducted based on the four components to test for significant mean differences. The non-parametric test, Mann-Whitney U Test, was conducted. The results confirmed the alternative hypothesis that, there are significant differences between Generation X and Y with regard to their perceptions of brand loyalty. The implications of the findings of the study, to marketing practitioners and brand managers is that they need to understand the type of association Generation X and Y have regarding their brands for effective and strategic planning in order to remain competitive. In addition to that, Generation X’s perception of quality does not differ significantly to that of Generation Y, thus it will be beneficial for practitioners to develop unique quality features. Consequently, they must intensify awareness around their brands.

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