Research Articles (Old Testament Studies)

Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://hdl.handle.net/2263/1772

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Spiritual space : hearing and experiencing the voice of God
(AOSIS, 2025-02) Firth, Walter B.
Many countries around the world are shifting into post-secular societies. As this process continues to take shape, it enables many and competing voices and expectations to bombard their citizens. This raises questions around the use of space, sacred texts and stories, and how communities of faith use them as a source to access and hear the voice of God. Acknowledging the valuable position that sacred space and text holds within faith communities, how should we seek to hear the voice of God speak in a post-secular context and into the current competing societal setting in which multiple voices vie and struggle, and power and societal structures shift as Christians aim to find meaning, purpose and establish ways of living? INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : In the context of the secular and/or non-religious public reflex in society, there is debate around sacred space and sacred text, including how it is used and how it is interpreted. As scrutiny increases of what and how, such material is shared, used and taught, creating a space where the voice of God can speak into our current settings becomes increasingly vital. In a fast-paced world, full of busyness and tiredness, how does one hear and experience the voice of God? This study provides such a basis for Practical Theology in post-secular societies, utilising Biblical text and historical understanding, to do so.
Isaiah 3:16–23 : dress, pride, ostentatious items or syncretism?
(AOSIS, 2025-02) Nyarko-Mensah, Paul; Human, Dirk J.
The study investigated Isaiah 3:16–23 using the historical-grammatical methodology for the following reasons: to explore the author’s aim in writing the passage, ascertain the socio-psychological significance of dress and outward appearance, determine whether the items listed are exclusively female dresses and examine the contribution of the women of Zion to national sin. Does the passage prohibit the use of jewellery? Isaiah rebuked the women for their pride in appearance, suggesting that their sin was a haughty spirit, expressed through their manner of walking and the use of luxurious items. The items listed include both male and female articles of dress and are not exclusively female dresses. Also, the list included items which had their origin in the cult and magic system of their Canaanite neighbours. Outward appearance can reflect one’s socio-economic status, as well as religious, moral and cultural values. Dress can influence how a person is perceived by others and can also affect one’s values. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : The study concluded that pride is an abomination to God, and the women of Zion, because of their privileged status, were expected to be separate and distinct from their neighbours by exhibiting modesty in their dress and appearance.
Is God partial in creation? A feminist re-examination of gender in the Yahwist’s narrative
(AOSIS, 2025-03) Dike, Uzoma A.; Agbo, Paulinus Okechukwu
Traditional Christian patriarchy and primacy of the male gender, at any rate, are linked to the Yahwist creation narrative in which the man is seemingly created before the woman. Prevailing conversations have constructed doctrinal positions, polity and dogmatism around the tradition of male headship and female subjugation. The objective of this study was to reread the Yahwist narrative with the view of demystifying the male headship mythology through a systematic analysis of the interconnection between adam and Adamah. The study utilised grammatical and syntactical exegesis and feminist hermeneutics to advance informed constructions on demystifying male headship. While the grammatical and syntactical focused on the grammar and word ordering of the text to arrive at the authorial intended meaning, the feminist hermeneutics renders interpretation from the women’s experience. Despite eisegetical tendencies surrounding some interpretations of the text of Genesis 2:21–25, the study adds to the discourses on a systematised derogatory view of the feminine gender by the Yahwist. This account presents gender asymmetry as it relates to biblical studies. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : This study contextualises gender asymmetries in ways that add to the discourse on egalitarianism.
Migration narratives in the book of Genesis and Japa syndrome among Nigerian youths
(AOSIS, 2025-03) Chukwuma, Onyekachi Gift; u05141517@tuks.co.za
The book of Genesis has copious narratives on migration. This article studies the migration stories of Abram’s and Jacob’s families vis-à-vis migration among Nigerian youths. A study of these biblical narratives reveals that severe famine precipitated the movement of these patriarchs and their families. Abram’s and Sarai’s migration to Egypt, according to Genesis 12:10, was a result of famine. Genesis 46 and 47 record that Jacob’s family migrated to Egypt due to the severe famine in Canaan. Similarly, many Nigerian youths migrate to other countries such as Canada, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, Austria, Ireland, Germany, et cetera to escape financial hardship and pursue greener pastures. To this end, the slang ‘Japa’ has become a household term among Nigerian youths. Japa is a new word for leaving one’s country for better living conditions. With narrative and descriptive analysis, this article studies relevant texts in Genesis and the Japa phenomenon among Nigerian youths. A comparative study reveals that bad living conditions are hugely associated with migration in the Old Testament and contemporary times. The high rate of unemployment, underemployment, and a lack of opportunities faced by Nigerian youths are hugely responsible for the mass migration. The study recommends that the Nigerian government create an enabling environment that promotes the financial stability of youths through better job opportunities and career growth. CONTRIBUTION : Migration is a long-standing human activity that is generally attributed to the quest for better living conditions. In the Old Testament, famine was hugely responsible for movement from one biblical residence to another. Nigerian society has witnessed a mass migration of its youths to other countries to escape the present economic situation in the country. A comparative study shows that many people migrate because of uncomfortable situations in their residence locations; there are challenges associated with migration, and migration usually leads to improved living conditions.
Unveiling the depths of trauma and the profound impact of rape and shaming on the Babylonian women in Isaiah 13:16 - a trauma and resilience reading of the violent narrative in Isaiah 13:16
(Africa Journals, 2024-05) Esterhuizen, Elizabeth; Groenewald, Alphonso, 1969-; alphonso.groenewald@up.ac.za
The book of Isaiah is one of the world’s oldest surviving resistance literature. Isaiah 13 describes God who collects an army for the battle against Babylon which will lead to Babylon’s utter desolation and destruction. Isaiah 13:16 deeply shocks the reader when it states that the wives of the Babylonians shall be raped and ravished by the men of this marching army. A literary, contextual, and historical methodology will be applied. Integrated insights from trauma studies will be used as a multidisciplinary approach to engage with these texts. A trauma perspective helps the reader to look squarely at the violence that the Bible often advocates and it can only become comprehensible if understood as the reaction of a dominated people to their domination. The oracles against the nations express the hope of freedom and return to their land, but also the hope of a triumphant reversal of the role of oppressors and oppressed. Insights from trauma studies suggest that these features transform this oracle into a work of resistance, recovery and resilience.
Ecstatic prophets in Israel and its relevance to the African indigenous churches in Nigeria
(Africa Journals, 2024-10) Olajide, Grace O.
Prophecy, prophet(s) and prophesying were usual religious and spiritual phenomena in ancient Israel which do pose challenges for the contemporary church. Sending of divine messages or revelation to the covenant people through the chosen spokespersons were part of deity and human transactions. The violent and crazy act of the prophet in the course of relating the messages of the divine has posed certain apprehensions and was often a source of fear in the people. Such manner of display by prophets is often done as a way to authenticate and make their oracles look as though they are original. The methodology employed in this brief study is an exegetical word study of key concepts and words as used in biblical texts and its applicability in African Initiated Churches. The researcher additionally employed a comparative approach on Ancient Israel and African Initiated Churches. The study discovered that in biblical times, ecstatic prophecy at times involved violence, crazy displays and emotional outbursts. Similarly, among the African Initiated Churches such practices are still employed with all the privileges and dangers attached to them. In the process of receiving or/and delivering divine messages, a state of ecstasy might be expressed by the recipients of the messages.
Exodus 2:1-10 and dialectics on maternal virtues in contemporary Igboland, Nigeria
(Old Testament Society of South Africa, 2024-12-01) Chukwuma, Onyekachi Gift ; u05141517@tuks.co.za
This study investigates the disposition of mothers in contemporary Igboland towards displaying traditional maternal virtues in the upbringing of their children. The inquiry is underpinned by a popular Old Testament narrative, Exodus 2:1-10. The pericope reports the story of the birth of Moses, who was born at the climax of a chaotic situation in Egypt. To control the numerical growth of the Israelites, the king of Egypt instructed that all Hebrew male babies be thrown into the Nile. When Moses was born, his mother, sister and Pharaoh’s daughter displayed age-long maternal qualities such as love, sacrifice, courage, wisdom and patience, to save him from Pharaoh’s plot. The study observes that in contemporary times, women have more opportunities for self-development and employment; they venture into diverse careers that could restrain them from exhibiting some longstanding motherly virtues in child upbringing. Feminist criticism, descriptive analysis and comparative analysis are employed in studying the text, the social phenomenon and the interaction between the text and the social context, respectively.
The Cyrus Cylinder in biblical scholarship
(Swedish Exegetical Society, 2024-12-16) Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia
Cyrus Cylinder. It argues that, due to significant differences in terms of content and focus, it is unlikely that the Cyrus Cylinder as a text has yielded any form of direct influence upon the biblical material. Whereas the Cyrus Cylinder emphasises how Cyrus restores the Babylonian deities to their rightful place in Babylon, the edicts in Ezra stress the return of the exiles and the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. The differences are both a matter of entities (gods versus peoples) and geography (Babylon versus Yehud). Further, whereas the Cyrus Cylinder focuses on Cyrus’s excellence and military might, Isa 40–48 emphasises YHWH’s role in world history. Instead, the article maintains that Cyrus’s action in history influenced the writings of both Isa 40–48 and Ezra 1–6. Both texts stress YHWH’s supremacy over the rulers and deities of the surrounding cultures. Isa 40–48 declares how Cyrus is YHWH’s tool, who serves YHWH’s purpose to destroy Israel’s enemies, and Ezra 1–6 proclaims how Cyrus fulfils YHWH’s purposes by bringing the exiles back home and allowing them to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem.
Proverbs 31:10-31 : autochthonous wives' roles for stable families in Ohafia matrilineal society
(AOSIS, 2024-08) Chukwuma, Onyekachi Gift; u05141517@tuks.co.za
Matriliny is a kinship system in which descent is traced through the mother’s line. This cultural diversity within the African continent is found among the Ohafia village group of Southeast Nigeria. In Ohafia matrilineal society, many men are married to autochthonous Ohafia wives, that is, women who are natives of Ohafia by birth. Culturally, the children of a man who married an autochthonous wife belong to his wife’s brothers and sisters. This encourages many husbands to abandon the responsibility of training their children. They use their resources to train their sisters’ children. Consequently, the burden of children’s upbringing usually becomes the responsibility of wives, and this interferes with their contributions in ensuring that their families are stable. This article aimed to compare the roles of an autochthonous wife with the attributes of wisdom displayed by the capable wife of Proverbs 31:10–31. This pericope is an alphabetic acrostic poem in which wisdom is personified as a wife. Literary analysis was employed in interpreting the pericope while comparative analysis was used in the interplay between the text and the prevailing cultural practice in the Ohafia community. Findings from this study revealed that some of the qualities of wisdom expressed in Proverbs 10:10–31 are replicated by many autochthonous Ohafia wives in their bid to ensure the functionality of their families. On the other hand, some of the traits of wisdom expressed in the text are lacking among autochthonous Ohafia wives. CONTRIBUTION: This study contributes to gender studies, theology and culture, and religion and society. The article compares the roles of autochthonous Ohafia wives in maintaining stable families with the distinguishing attributes of wisdom displayed by the capable wife of Proverbs 31:10–31. It beckons on autochthonous Ohafia wives to embrace wisdom, because wisdom is principal to sustain God’s order for family life.
The tension between experiences of nothingness and hope in the metaphorical meaning of the names of the children (Isaiah 7-8) from a perspective of generational imprinted trauma and resilience
(Old Testament Society of South Africa, 2023-12-01) Esterhuizen, Elizabeth; Groenewald, Alphonso, 1969-
The texts of Isaiah 7 and 8 are a paragon of metaphorical meanings and signs, especially as they pertain to the name-giving of Isaiah 's sons: Shear-Jashub, Immanuel, and Maher-shalal-hash-baz. This opens a scope of possibilities for Biblical scholars as hardly any research has been done on the implications and corollaries of the three sign names. The significance of children and the function they have within the Hebrew Bible are investigated to give a better understanding of the prophetic utterance of Isaiah. Furthermore, when a perspective of generational imprinted trauma2 is applied to explore and understand the text, an opportunity arises to assess the text within the parameters of pre-migration and the ensuing traumatic experiences. The metaphorical names give us as biblical scholars a glimpse into the possible outcome of fear and threat that is posed by the Syro-Epohraimite coalition and the Assyrian campaign. Within the three sign-names, the pragmatics of individual and collective trauma, healing, and resilience are also underpinned. As the axes sway between hopelessness (nothingness) and hopefulness, the sign-names of the children provide dualistic solutions of either divine punishment or the restitution of a remaining remnant through complete faith and the knowledge that 'God is with us
The Imago Dei : the distinctiveness of humanity
(Old Testament Society of Southern Africa, 2023-12-01) Coleman, Roche
Arguments for humans and animals existing in the imago Dei derive from a desire to harmonize Genesis 1:26-28 and alleged scientific views derived from an evolutionary system. An accurate analysis of biblical anthropology reveals the uniqueness of humankind in the areas of distinctiveness ("of which there is only one ") and superiority ("standing alone in comparison with others, frequently by reason of superior excellence" ).1 Considering the attempts to augment the biblical concept of the imago Dei, this paper argues humanity alone resides in the distinct status of being created in the image of God. Three sections will substantiate the unique design of humanity. First, a presentation of the historical view of the imago Dei. Second, an examination of evolution's influence on the biblical rendering of the origin of humanity, human distinctiveness, recasting anthropology, and inferior groups. Third, emphasis on biblical anthropology in Genesis 1:26-28 that culminates with the offering of the lesser for the greater through divination and sacrifice
Does God really hate divorce? A comparative analysis of ancient texts of Mal 2:14–16
(Old Testament Society of South Africa, 2024-11-20) Lumanze, Obedben Mmesomachukwu
Historically, Malachi 2:16 has served as a veto against divorce, especially among African evangelicals. While marriage is ideally a lifelong commitment, this interpretation often overlooks the context of the passage. Many are unaware of its grammatical ambiguities and varying ancient translations. This study examines Malachi 2:14–16 to understand the prophet's views on marriage as a covenant. The findings reveal that the Hebrew word “šallaḥ”, commonly translated as "divorce," actually refers to the improper "putting away" of legally married wives without adhering to established guidelines. The study concludes that Malachi's argument refers back to the creation narrative, offering a framework for ethical thinking. While marriage is sacred and should be upheld, those facing divorce should not be seen as irredeemable sinners.
Remembered space as hermeneutical method in Psalms studies with reference to Psalm 90
(AOSIS, 2024-12) Kok-Pretorius, Marina R.C.
This article combines the model of critical spatiality with collective memory and religious imagination in order to create a theoretical basis from which to study biblical texts. The combination of critical spatiality, collective memory and religious imagination amount to remembered space as hermeneutical method. In order to be able to employ remembered space as hermeneutical method, as applied to Psalm 90 in this article, a number of aspects must be considered. These aspects include the different dimensions of space as per spatial theory, the bases of ancient Near Eastern worldview and spatial orientation, as well as the theoretical principles of collective memory. CONTRIBUTION: After considering all of these aspects, the article argues that remembered space provides a fresh perspective on the interpretation of biblical texts, highlighting the spatial notions, collective memory and imaginative outcomes underlying biblical texts. As a case in point, Psalm 90 employed remembered space through imaginative remembering to reimagine stability, identity and faith in a post-exilic time of crisis, instability and trauma.
Catalysts or antidotes to downward social mobility? Critique of the ‘Big Three’ in Zimbabwe
(AOSIS, 2024-03) Madzokere, Nyasha
The fact that Pentecostal Christianity is the fastest growing form of Christianity in Africa can no longer be a subject of debate. Christianity, one of the major religions in the world, has been growing at unprecedented rates in sub-Saharan Africa. What is being observed on the religious atmosphere is the Pentecostalisation of African Christianity in Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular. From 2009 onwards, Zimbabwe has experienced a mushrooming spree of contemporary Pentecostalism. Though conglomerate in nature, three ecclesiastical figures overshadow the rest, namely Emmanuel Makandiwa’s United Family International Church, Uebert Angel of Good News Church and Walter Magaya of Prophetic, Healing and Deliverance Ministries. The three Pentecostal figures became highly popular through the propagation of the Gospel of Prosperity with vigour and vitality. Their presence in the Zimbabwean religious arena has attracted mixed perceptions. Some people view them as rippers of peoples’ hard-earned monies, while others regard them as true prophets – the messengers of God. The million-dollar question remains: Are they catalysts or antidotes to downward social mobility? This article grapples to assess whether the ‘Big Three’ contemporary Pentecostal prophets serve as propellers or dispellers of downward social mobility. The Big Three are antidotes based on three arguments: (1) Propagation of the Gospel of Prosperity, (2) miracle performances and (3) societal empowerment champions. On the other hand, the prophets are catalysts based on three arguments: white-collar prophecy, negation of social justice and preferential option for the Powerful. Through the application of the justitia pro-povo oprimido liberation hermeneutics, the study argues that the ‘Big Three’ ecclesiastical clergymen serve more as catalysts to downward social mobility than antidotes to downward social mobility. The justitia pro-povo oprimido liberation hermeneutics is a new methodological approach invented by the author based on liberation theology that sees Christianity as seeking the justice of the oppressed. CONTRIBUTION: The article critically reflects on rise of contemporary Pentecostalism in Zimbabwe focussing on the three outstanding prophets – Emmanuel Makandiwa, Uebert Angel and Walter Magaya. While the three clergymen contributed immensely, both positively and negatively to the rise and development of African Pentecostalisation of Zimbabwe, the justitia pro-povo oprimido liberation hermeneutics reveals the contemporary Pentecostal figures as propellers of downward social mobility.
The conceptualisation of morality in Judaism
(AOSIS, 2024-04-05) Michal, Gavin
This article dealt with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of morality in Judaism: much of contemporary scholarship promotes the Strong Dependence Theory where God is considered the prime source of morality − yet an empirical analysis of classical rabbinic literature indicates a leaning more towards the Weak Dependence Theory which considers human beings the source for morality. Somehow, scholarship seems to overlook this textual evidence. On the other hand, that same contemporary scholarship has no problem in accepting absolute and complete human autonomy in the area of Jewish religious law or Halacha. This study questioned why humans are comfortably accepted as the primary determinants of religious law but not of morality – and argued for a return to the original Weak Dependence Theory to maintain moral efficacy. It included an examination of an extreme historical test case for rabbinic morality concerning how the rabbinic world dealt internally with the moral implications of major rabbis who had fled the Holocaust. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : While this literature study was conducted from an orthodox rabbinic perspective, it adopted a descriptive and evaluative methodology based on academic, rabbinic and historical sources.
The conceptualisation of morality in ancient religions at the hand of the Gilgamesh Epic
(AOSIS, 2024-04-05) De Villiers, Gerda
This article addressed ‘The conceptualisation of morality in ancient religions at the hand of the Gilgamesh Epic’. After pointing out that ancient languages do not have words for neither morality nor religion, I discussed the following incidents in the Epic: he who saw the Deep; the immoral conduct of a king; the slaying of Humbaba; Ishtar and a death penalty; and a visit to Utanapishtim, the Distant. I alluded briefly to the way that the Epic ends. The aim was to examine whether ancient societies had a concept of morality and what role, if any, did religion play. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : The conclusion was that religion played a very minor role, and that morality in ancient societies was a human endeavour.
Where elders cry, the young laugh : Proverbs 3:31–35 and the examining of malpractice in Nigeria
(AOSIS, 2024-07-31) Uroko, Favour Chukwuemeka
This article examines Proverbs 3:31–35 in the exam malpractice crisis ravaging secondary schools in Nigeria. Proverbs 3:31–35 has the central thesis of the call to avoid the company of evildoers and the blessings of going on the right path. Scholars have approached the issue of examination malpractice from an economic, social and psychological lens. In this study, the Old Testament was used as the lens for tackling the situation. This is a qualitative study using the rhetorical method. The data were obtained from the Bible, Bible commentaries, gazettes, journal articles and other periodicals. Emerged themes include: (1) warning not to join bad people; (2) consequences of the warning and (3) end point of one’s decision. Exam misconduct reflects deeper societal concerns such as corruption, weak regulatory enforcement and the temptation to succeed at any cost. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : Proverbs 3:31–35 has shown that the increasing number of graduates who cannot defend their certificates and corruption is caused by the blatant and obscene nature of exam malpractice in Nigeria. Old Testament and Practical Theology were implicated in the study.
Proverbs 31:10–31 : an antithesis of pre-exilic Hebrew womanhood?
(AOSIS, 2024-08-30) Nyarko-Mensah, Paul; Human, Dirk J.
The priests and scribes were familiar with the process of applying a manuscript or prophecy to a current context to produce relevant material for the era. It is most probable that the scribes and/or priests during the post-exilic Persian period reinterpreted the prophecies of Isaiah and Amos against the moral and social decay of the women of the Hebrew nation during the 8th century BCE to create an antithesis of that situation in the form of the virtuous woman of Proverbs 31:10–31. The similarity of words in the poem and the writings of Ezra could suggest that Ezra might have had a hand in the writing or editing of the poem in Proverbs 31:10–31. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : The study brings Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern studies together, with both elucidating each other.
Memories of Zion in exile : a contextual reading of the ironical ‘bitter beatitudes’ of Psalm 137
(AOSIS, 2024-05-31) Boloje, Blessing Onoriode
While one’s memory might not always be flawless, possibly because of forgetfulness, memory loss, or selective recall, there are certain memories that demand to be remembered. These memories can flow through people’s lives like rivers. Psalm 137 depicts a compelling backdrop and scenario that closely mirrors the actual experiences of individuals and their recollections. This Psalm is regarded as the most direct and poignant recollection of the Babylonian exile in the entire Psalter. Although some may find the desires expressed in the Psalm troubling and unsuitable for New Testament believers, it aligns with Israel’s theological and liturgical response to undeserved or unavoidable suffering. It serves as an entreaty to Yahweh (YHWH), the ultimate source of strength amid powerlessness and hope amid hopelessness. Consequently, Psalm 137 represents a substantial theological statement with contemporary relevance. This article draws a parallel between the emotional anguish experienced by the psalmist, stemming from their unfavourable socioeconomic circumstances, and the similarly oppressive socioeconomic, and psychological conditions faced by many in contemporary times. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : This article employs the principle of contemporaneity while engaging with the biblical, literary, and exegetical scope of Psalm 137 to establish a theological rationale and contextual adaptation for this retaliatory Psalm attributed to David. The theological assertion is that in a society marked by violence and abuse, where there exists a sinister conspiracy of brutality, invoking YHWH’s intervention by breaking the silence indeed has the potential to effect change. This theological datum makes Psalms 137 resonates in the memory of many today.
Exploring Joshua 7:1–5 through the lens of social contagion liability
(AOSIS, 2024-09-12) Odo, D.O. (Damian); Human, Dirk J.; dirk.human@up.ac.za
Scholars of the Old Testament affirm that the book of Joshua through 2nd Kings is collectively called the deuteronomistic history. The literary unit of Joshua 7:1–5 is one the Locus Classicus of Old Testament. Obedience to God’s instruction underscores the theological intentionality expressed in this unified segment of Old Testament literature. This ancient Israelite literary exposition exposes inter-alia the misfortune that besets the entire people of Israel as a result of Achan’s moral transgression. The consequence of Achan’s antisocial behaviour was so contagious that it spread across to the entire populace of Israel as they were humiliated and defeated in a battle by the warriors of Ai. This pericope has been studied in various perspectives by commentators and scholars of the Old Testament; however, a survey of available literature shows that it has not been explored by scholars from the orbit of social contagion liability. Therefore, this article intends to engage the literary unit, employing the lens of social contagion liability. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS : This study engaged the literary unit of Joshua 7:1–5 from the orbit of social contagion liability. It argues that Achan’s anti-social behaviour spread to the entire populace of Israel and got them contaminated and exposed to misfortune because it has the characteristics of social contagion liability. The study contributed to Old Testament Exegesis, sociology and social contagion study.

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