Public transport systems and safety of female commuters in low-and-middle-income countries : a systematic scoping review

Abstract

BACKGROUND : This scoping review systematically maps and summarises research evidence concerning the safety of female commuters in public transport systems across Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). Given the essential role of public transport in LMICs, particularly for women in both formal and informal sectors, understanding the safety challenges they face is crucial. METHODS : We followed the Arksey and O’Malley methodological framework to structure this scoping review. The Population (Females), Concept (safety in public transport/transit), and Context (LMICs) framework guided our eligibility criteria. We searched for original research articles in PubMed, EBSCOhost (CINAHL, PsycInfo, and Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition), SCOPUS, and Web of Science published between 2012 and 2023, and updated in February 2025. We additionally searched Google Scholar platform, and the reference list of included studies to uncover any additional relevant literature. The study selection and data extraction were performed by two reviewers using pilot-tested forms. Thematic analysis was used to organise the data into themes and a narrative summary of the findings is presented. RESULTS : Of the total 114 articles obtained from the database searches, 26 studies published in 14 countries met the inclusion criteria. The review identified a paucity of research in this area, with an average of three relevant papers published per year. The existing literature is geographically imbalanced, with a predominant focus on South Africa, India, and Malaysia, leaving many LMICs underrepresented. Most (11 out of 26) studies employed quantitative methods, leaving a need for more diverse research methodologies. Widespread concerns, fear of assault and harassment among women commuters across various countries; underreporting of sexual harassment, prevalence of violence against women in public transport systems with its psychological, economic, health, and social consequences; and transit sexual assault were among the themes identified. CONCLUSION : This scoping review reveals the urgent need for further research on the safety of female commuters in LMICs, especially in underrepresented countries, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by women in diverse contexts. It advocates for diversified research methods, public awareness campaigns, improved reporting mechanisms, policy reforms, infrastructure enhancements, and culturally sensitive initiatives to ensure the safety and well-being of female commuters in public transport systems across LMICs.